Early history of electricity
Let us now turn our attention to the early facts, that is to say, let us see how it all started.
History shows us that at least 2,500 years ago or so, the Greeks were already familiar with the strange force (as it seemed to them) which is known today as electricity. Generally speaking, three phenomena made up all of man's knowledge of electrical effects. The first phenomenon under consideration was the familiar lightning flash —a dangerous power, as it seemed to him, which could both kill people and burn or destroy their houses. The second manifestation of electricity he was more or less familiar with was the following: he sometimes found in the earth a strange yellow stone which looked like glass. On being rubbed, that strange yellow stone, that is to say amber, obtained the ability of attracting light objects of a small size. The third phenomenon was connected with the so-called electric fish which possessed the property of giving more or less strong electric shocks which could be obtained by a person coming into contact with the electric fish.
Nobody knew that the above phenomena were due to electricity. People could neither understand their observations nor find any practical applications for them.
As a matter of fact, all of man's knowledge in the field of electricity has been obtained during the last 400 years, or so. Needless to say, it took a long time before scientists learned how to make use of electricity. In effect, most of the electrically operated devices, such as the electric lamp, the refrigerator, the tram, the lift, the radio, and so on, are less than one hundred years old. In spite of their having been employed for such a short period of time, they play a most important part in man's everyday life all over the world. In fact, we cannot do without them at present.
So far, we have not named the scientists who contributed to the scientific research on electricity as centuries passed. However, famous names are connected with its history and among them we find that of Phales, the Greek philosopher. As early as about 600 В. С. (that is, before our era) he discovered that when amber was rubbed, it attracted and held minute light objects. However, he could not know that amber was charged with electricity owing to the process of rubbing. Then Gilbert, the English physicist, began the first systematic scientific research on electrical phenomena. He discovered that various other substances possessed the property similar to that of amber or, in other words, they generated electricity when they were rubbed. He gave the name "electricity" to the phenomenon he was studying. He got this word from the Greek "electrum" meaning "amber".
Many learned men of Europe began to use the new word "electricity" in their conversation as they were engaged in research of their own. Scientists of Russia, France and Italy made their contribution as well as the Englishmen and the Germans.
Exercises
I. Learn the following words, groups of words and sentences. Translate the sentences.
1. as a matter of fact — действительно, на самом деле. As a matter of fact there is a relation between electricity and magnetism.
2. at least — по крайней мере. Electrical devices were invented at least 100 years ago.
3. to come into contact — соприкасаться. It is dangerous to come into contact with high voltage.
4. due to — благодаря, вследствие, из-за. We can watch TV due to electricity.
5. famous — известный. Famous scientists work at our institute.
6. to generate — производить, вырабатывать, генерировать. The first nuclear power plant generated current in 1954.
7. in spite of— несмотря на. We burn coal in spite of its being a source of chemical products.
8. knowledge — знания. Students get knowledge at the institute.
9. to mean— значить, означать. The words 'atmospheric electricity' and 'lightning' mean one and the same thing.
10. more or less — более или менее. All metals have more or less similar properties.
11. needless to say — нечего и говорить. Needless to say, we need more and more electrical energy.
12. research — исследование. Russian scientists contribute greatly to scientific research.
13. to take time — занимать время. Learning English words takes much time.
14. that is to say— то есть, иными словами. Nuclear fuel, that is to say, uranium is used in reactors.
15. to turn one's attention to— обращать внимание. Galileo turned his attention to the properties of magnetic materials.
16. various— различный. Gilbert made various experiments on electricity and magnetism.
17. under consideration — рассматриваемый, обсуждаемый. The instructions under consideration were written for the new installation.
II. Learn to recognize the following international words.
strange, history, to start, effect, shock, period, philosopher, object, systematic
III. Translate the following groups of words.
famous mathematician, to generate electric energy, due to various applications, in spite of difficulties, the example under consideration
несмотря на большие достижения, известные наблюдения, благодаря громоотводу, различные установки, на самом деле, по крайней мере, в лаборатории
IV.For the word combinations given in (a) find the English equivalents in (b).
a) 1. пока что; 2. несмотря на; 3. на самом деле; 4. благодаря; 5. то есть; 6. между прочим; 7. в результате; 8. по крайней мере; 9. вместо; 10. более или менее; 11. в свою очередь; 12. рассматриваемый
b) 1. at least; 2. as a matter of fact; 3. that is to say; 4. in one's turn; 5. in question; 6. so far; 7. instead of; 8. more or less; 9. in spite of; 10. thanks to; 11. as a result; 12. by the way
V. Fill in the blanks with the following words and expressions.
in the form of, because, because of, to be interested in, to put into operation, as for, to be named after, in question, to turn one's attention to
1. The discovery ... was made by a well-known Russian scientist. 2. Moscow University ... M.V. Lomonosov. 3. Franklin ... making experiments with atmospheric electricity. 4. ... the electric current, it is used both in industry and in our homes. 5. The first atomic power plant in the world ... in the USSR in June 1954. 6. Professor Rihman was killed by a stroke of lightning ... he did not think of possible danger. 7. Atom finds a wide application ... its ability of producing heat and energy. 8. The scientists of Russia ... the use of nuclear power for peaceful purposes.
VI. 1) For the names of the countries given in (a) find the names of the nations given in (b).
a) 1. England; 2. France; 3. Russia; 4. Greece; 5. Italy; 6. Germany; 7. America
b) 1. The Italians; 2. The Greeks; 3. The Russians; 4. The Englishmen; 5. The Frenchmen; 6. The Germans; 7. The Americans
VII. Give short answers to the following questions.
1. Is magnetism and electricity one and the same thing? 2. Do magnets possess the property of attracting iron? 3. Do you know who discovered magnetism?
4. Was the phenomenon of electricity known to people in the past? 5. Did Gilbert work in the field of electricity? 6. Do you carry out experiments on lightning? 7.
Is lightning a strong spark of electricity? 8. Can atomic energy be used for
the good of mankind? 9. Do you know the history of electricity? 10. Was Phales
a German philosopher? 11. Did you study the history of electricity? 12. Have you ever come into contact with an electric fish? 13. Can you do without electricity?
VIII. Define the following terms.
lightning, lightning conductor, magnetism, refrigerator, generator, motor, turbine
IX. Speak on:
1. Three electrical phenomena known to the people of the past.
2. Everyday use of electricity.
X. Make up the annotation of the text and retell it.
UNIT 8
Read and translate the text.
HISTORY OF THERMOMETERS
Placing a kettle full of cold water on the fire is quite an ordinary thing. This time we shall do it to carry out a simple experiment. Placing a finger into the kettle from time to time, we find that the water is gradually becoming hotter and hotter, until it boils at last. In scientific language we describe this phenomenon by saying that the temperature of the water is rising.
However, we need some more exact means of measuring the difference of temperature than our finger. In effect, the finger can give us neither exact information, nor numerical data.
As a matter of fact, the very first step in the development of heat engineering made it necessary to find a device for indicating temperature and for measuring its changes. As it is well known, the thermometer is the very instrument that serves this purpose.
As early as 1602, Galileo invented an air thermometer. It consisted of a glass bulb containing air and connected to a glass tube, the latter being immersed into a coloured liquid. Galileo's air thermometer was sensitive not only to temperature changes but also to changes of atmospheric pressure.
The type of thermometer familiar to everyone at present was first put into general use as early as 1654. Making the first measuring instruments was not an easy thing at all. Needless to say, the most difficult problem of all was that of marking the degrees on the thermometer, in other words, of graduating the scale. It was decided, at last, to take two fixed points and to divide the interval between them into small equal parts or degrees. And then, in 1701, Isaak Newton, the famous English scientist, whose name is
known all over the world, constructed a scale in which the freezing point of water was taken as zero and the temperature of the human body as 12°.
Some time later the German physicist Fahrenheit proved that the temperature of boiling water was always the same at the same atmospheric pressure. It might therefore be used as a second fixed point instead of the temperature of the human body. As for the liquid used, it was mercury which has been mostly employed since that time.
On the Fahrenheit scale the boiling point of water is taken as 212° and the freezing point as 32°, the interval being divided into 180 equal parts. The scale under consideration is indicated by writing the letter F after the temperature, as for example, 212°F. This scale is mainly used in English speaking countries.
On the Centigrade scale the freezing point of water is marked 0°C and the boiling point is marked 100°C, the letter С indicating this scale. This temperature scale is employed in Russia as well as in most other countries of the world.
Exercises
I. Learn the following words, groups of words. Translate the sentences.
1. body— тело. It is very important to know the quantity of energy present in a body.
2. to boil— кипеть. We boil water to produce steam.
3. boiling point — точка кипения. The boiling point of water depends on atmospheric pressure.
4. degree— градус; степень. Steel melts at 1300 degrees.
5. data — данные. These data were used in research work.
6. difference — разность, разница. What is the difference between potential and kinetic energy?
7. freezing point — точка замерзания. What is the freezing point of water?
8. to indicate — показывать, указывать. The capacity of the generator is indicated in the instruction.
9. the latter— последний из упомянутых. Coal and uranium are fuels; the latter is used in nuclear reactors.
10. liquid — жидкость. At what temperature does this liquid boil?
11. means — средство. A lightning conductor is a means of protecting houses from lightning.
12. mercury — ртуть. Mercury is a metal.
13. pressure — давление. What is the atmospheric pressure today?
14. purpose— цель, намерение. What is the purpose of this laboratory work?
15. to put into use — вводить в действие, запускать. A new reactor was put into use.
16. to rise — подниматься, возрастать. When the body is heated its temperature rises.
II. Translate the following groups of words.
high pressure, temperature difference, freezing point of water, scientific data, to indicate degrees, useful means
указывать давление, точка кипения, последний из упомянутых, ввести станцию в действие, кипятить воду, жидкое топливо
III. Fill in the blanks with suitable words and word combinations given below.
1.A thermometer is employed for ... temperature and for ... its changes.
2. The glass tube was immersed into a ... liquid. 3. As early as 1602 Galileo invented an ... . 4. The ... scale is employed in Russia. 5. ... looks like a yellow stone. 6. The Fahrenheit scale is mainly used in ... . 7. Galileo's air thermometer was sensitive to ... . 8. The scientists worked out the plan of their ... research.
coloured, Centigrade, amber, measuring, English speaking countries, air thermometer, indicating, changes of atmospheric pressure, scientific
IV. 1) For the verbs in (a) find suitable nouns in (b).
a).1. to carry out; 2. to put into; 3. to contribute to; 4. to solve; 5. to deliver; 6. to take part in; 7. to go
b) 1. research; 2. a problem; 3. on foot; 4. an experiment; 5. operation; 6. science; 7. a lecture
2) For the nouns in (a) find suitable attributes in (b).
a) 1. famous; 2. boiling; 3. glass; 4. cold; 5. scientific; 6. electrical; 7. mercury
b) 1. water; 2. problem; 3. thermometer; 4. device; 5. bulb; 6. scientist; 7. point
V. 1) Translate the following word combinations.
temperature scale, lightning conductor, freezing point, human body, German speaking countries, measuring instrument, temperature difference, boiling point, atmospheric pressure, numerical data, mercury thermometer, electrical device
2) Use these word combinations in sentences of your own.
VI. Give synonyms for the following words.
to use, big, learned man, owing to, instrument, various
VII. Translate the following sentences paying special attention to the words in bold type.
1. You are the onlyengineer who speaks both English and German. 2. This is theonly book by I.S. Turgenev that I haven't read. 3. All countries should use nuclear power for peaceful purposes only.4. This phenomenon was studied first by Sokolov and thenby Novikov. 5. Novikov's result was certainly better thanthat of his friend. 6. Galileo constructed an air thermometer, some years latera French scientist constructed another one, in which water was used instead of air. 7. Both M.V. Lomonosov and G. W. Rikhman studied atmospheric electricity, the latter being Lomonosov's friend. 8. There are 26letters in the English language. 9. The last letter of the English alphabet is "z". 10. Somestudents work and study at the same time. 11. This engineer carried on some experiments on the properties of semiconductors.
VIII. Find the wrong statements and correct them.
1. We can do without the thermometer when we need exact data on the temperature of the body. 2. The thermometer is the very instrument for protecting buildings from thunderstorms. 3. As early as 1602 Galileo invented the Centigrade scale. 4. An air thermometer consisted of a metal bulb containing mercury and connected to a glass tube. 5. The glass tube in the air thermometer was immersed into water. 6. Water is the very liquid that is used in thermometers. 7. The Fahrenheit scale is widely employed all over the world. 8. Water temperature falls when a kettle is put on the fire. 9. Mercury is not used in thermometers at present.
IX. Answer the following questions.
1. What is this text about? 2. What do you do if you want to boil water? 3. What is the temperature of boiling water? 4. What instrument is used for measuring temperature? 5. What did Galileo invent? 6. What do you know about the air thermometer? 7. What is the difference between the Fahrenheit and the Centigrade scales? 8. What instrument measures the temperature of hot metals? 9. What is the difference between the mercury thermometer and the pyrometer? 10. When does water freeze?
X. Make up the annotation of the text and retell it.
UNIT 9
Read and translate the text.
LOMONOSOV
The great Russian scientist, outstanding poet and enlightener, M.V. Lomonosov, was born in the village of Denisovka (now Lomonosovo), far off in the North, on November 19, 1711. He was very young when he easily mastered reading and writing. The boy longed for knowledge, he longed to master science. That longing was so great that at the age of 19 he left his father's home and started on foot for Moscow in spite of the long distance and the cold winter.
He experienced great want and countless hardships during his student years both in Moscow and later on in Germany where he had been sent to complete his education. Studying at the academy, he got only 3 copecks a day, that scholarship being his only means of living.
He mastered natural science as well as history, philosophy and engineering. In addition to the Russian language, he had a good knowledge of foreign languages, namely German, French, Greek and, last but not least, Latin which was the international language of science at that time. At the age of 35 M.V. Lomonosov was already an experienced professor and an academician.
It is quite impossible to name a scientific problem he did not turn his attention to. Nevertheless, theory alone left him dissatisfied. He knew by experience that it was useless and unreliable if it did not find practical application and could not, therefore, serve the good of his people and his country. He always tried to find practical application for the phenomena studied.
M.V. Lomonosov possessed an unusual capacity for work. He carried out an extraordinary amount of useful, educational work in various fields of scientific and cultural life. He carried on scientific research in natural science and made numerous reports on the results of his achievements. He lectured to students and translated the works of various foreign scientists into Russian for he 'wanted to educate "our own Newtons". For this very purpose he founded Moscow University and wrote his odes as well as numerous books on the Russian language and literature, on physics and so on.
For many years the great scientist carried on systematic experimental laboratory work both in physics and chemistry for, according to his opinion, without observation and experiment there could be no progress in science. In this connection, one might ask: "Do you know that Lomonosov organized the first chemical laboratory in our country?" One more question: "Who built the first glass-making factory in Russia?" It was Lomonosov, of course!
As a materialist, M.V. Lomonosov studied physical properties of bodies on the basis of the molecular and atomic theory. He developed the kinetic theory of gases, the molecular kinetic theory of heat and first discovered the law of conservation of matter and momentum. He also found that light, heat and electricity are different forms of motion. As a result, many of his discoveries became invaluable contribution to world science.
From the very first and to the last days of his life he struggled alone for Russian science and the enlightenment ofthe Russian people.
Exercises
I. Learn the following words, groups of words. Translate the sentences.
1. amount — количество. A large amount of work was done by the students in summer.
2. at a result — в результате. The discovery was made as a result of a long research work.
3. chemistry — химия. Chemistry is my favorite subject.
4.to experience— испытывать; претерпевать. M.V. Lomonosov experienced great difficulties when he was a student.
5. heat— тепло, теплота. Heat is a form of energy.
6.in addition to— вдобавок, в дополнение. Electricity is used in every home in addition to its industrial applications.
7. to last— длиться, продолжаться. How long will the lecture last?
8. law— закон, право. What laws did Newton discover?
9. light— свет; светлый. This lamp gives little light.
10. matter—вещество, материя. What kind of matter is used in your experiment?
11.motion— движение. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
12. natural— естественный. Natural sciences are studied at the university.
13. nevertheless— тем не менее. Lightning conductor is an old invention; nevertheless it is used at present.
14. numerous:—многочисленный. Gilbert made numerous experiments on magnetic materials.
15. on the basis of — на основе. Galileo studied magnetic materials on the basis of Gilbert's achievements.
16. physics — физика. Do you study physics?
17. theory— теория. Franklin developed a new theory of electricity.
II. Learn to recognize the following international words.
poet, academy, professor, academician, international, activity, cultural, university, literature, chemistry, materialist, gas
III. Translate the following words paying attention to the suffixes and prefixes.
countless, distance, education, scholarship, impossible, to dissatisfy, observation, materialist, physical, unusual, extraordinary, conservation, invaluable, enlightener, possibility, to occupy, sunny, useful, discovery
IV. Translate the following groups of words.
in addition to theory, as a result of discovery, natural mistake, physics law, electric light, on the basis of motion
большое количество, длиться два дня, тем не менее, изучать теплоту, многочисленные достижения, новая теория
V. For the words given in (a) find suitable prefixes in (b).
a) 1. natural; 2. to organize; 3. possible; 4. to satisfy; 5. ordinary; 6. valuable; 7. large; 8. to cover; 9. to write; 10. to charge; 11. usual
b) 1. re; 2. in; 3. im; 4. un; 5. dis; 6. extra; 7. super; 8. en
VI. Translate the following sentences paying attention to the words in bold type.
1. I like to read butI have very little time for reading. 2. My friend speaks of nothing else buthis examinations. 3. As for the power spent in producing lightning flashes it is but1/10,000 of the power got by mankind from the sun. 4. The Fahrenheit scale is used in England, butit is not used in Russia. 5. We know that a thermometer is used formeasuring temperature differences. 6. I was sent forthe doctor. 7. These students studied English for 2 years. 8. Russian scientists and inventors work forthis country. 9. Our professor left forLeningrad forhe is going to work there for3 weeks. 10. It is necessary for me to be at home at 6 o'clock. 11. The scientist was observing a new phenomenon fora long time. 12. We need much electricity for it is used both in our homes and in industry.
VII. Give as many nouns as possible with the following suffixes.
-or, -er, -ist, -ship, -tion, -ment, -ness
VIII. For the adjectives given in (a) find suitable nouns in (b).
a) 1. natural; 2. famous; 3. electric; 4. useful; 5. long; 6. cold; 7. foreign; 8. scientific; 9. industrial; 10. molecular; 11. dark; 12. physical
b) 1. way; 2. language; 3. application; 4. property; 5. theory; 6. furnace; 7. sciences; 8. cloud; 9. work; 10. activity; 11. winter; 12. scientist
IX. Form sentences using the nouns qualified by adjectives given in Ex. VIII.
Model: M.V. Lomonosov studied natural sciences.
X. Form questions for the following answers.
1. In the village of Denisovka. 2. on November 19, 1711. 3. At the age of 19. 4. Yes, I do. 5. No, he did not. 6. At the age of 35. 7. On the basis of molecular and atomic theory. 8. He discovered the law of conservation of matter and momentum.
XI. Answer the following questions.
1. Was M.V. Lomonosov born in Russia? 2. In what year was he born? 3. What did he long for? 4. Why did he leave his father's home? 5. Did he complete his education in America? 6. What subjects did he master? 7. What foreign languages did he know? 8. Did M.V. Lomonosov deliver lectures to students? 9. For what purpose did he found Moscow University? 10. Who organized the first chemical laboratory in our country? 11. What theories did M.V. Lomonosov develop?
XII. Make up the annotation of the text and retell it.
UNIT 10
Read and translate the text.