Xii. Divide the text into logical parts, make up an outline of the text and speak on the text in accordance with your outline

WORD STUDY

I. GIVE RUSSIAN EQUIVALENTS FOR:

A value of supreme importance; to deserve the pay; di­vision of power; ideologically ambiguous parties; internal impediments; to infringe on citizens' lives; propensity to

Учебное пособие для философов и политологов

criticize; impartial laws; irrational judgments; arbitrary tastes; regardless of; beyond the realm of politics; to punish for illegal behavior; for the sake of; to abandon principles; a controversial question; general lack of interest.

II. GIVE ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS FOR:

Гордиться; гордость; участвовать; преимущество; слу­жащий; неизбежно; склонность; взаимодействие; личные связи; убеждение; наказывать; наказание; уступка; со­перничающие стороны; непосредственное участие; про­тиворечивый вопрос; необъяснимый.

III. COMPLETE THE SENTENCES. USE WORD-COM­
BINATIONS IN BRACKETS.

l.They are proud of (propensity to criticize; rational judgments; advantages in their rights;, participating in the political life; social interactions; personal connections).

2. They are involved in (conducting foreign affairs;
criticizing their political leaders; idealizing compromise;
economic dealings; talking politics).

3. They are subject to (strong public criticism; legal
punishment; 'checks and balances' policy; irrational judg­
ments; illegal procedures).

4. They are likely to (deserve the pay; abandon their
former principles; settle this controversial question; express
their lack of interest; participate in this political action for
the sake of their electors; be proud of their direct partici­
pation in the voluntary work; make a concession in this
dealing; believe in personal connections; express their con­
viction as soon as possible).

IV. TRANSLATE INTO RUSSIAN THESE SENTENC­
ES. MAKE UP YOUR OWN SENTENCES WITH THE
SIMILAR STARTING WORDS.

Part I

Political science

V. ASK YOUR FRIEND:

— if he is proud of the political system of the country
he lives in;

— what view he has got of politics and politicians;

— if his government is too strong and powerful;

— if he talks politics with his friends;

— whether personal connections are very important for
his career.

Political science

Part

PART II

POLITICAL SCIENCE

UNIT I

I. READ AND TRANSLATE THE TEXT.

DEFINING POLITICS

Politics, in its broadest sense, is the activity through which people make, preserve and amend the general rules under which they live. Although politics is also an aca­demic subject (sometimes, indicated by the use of 'Politics' with a capital letter), it is then clearly the study of this activity. Politics is thus inextricably linked to the pheno­mena of conflict and cooperation. On the one hand, the existence of rival opinions, different wants, competing needs and opposing interests guarantees disagreement about the rules under which people live. On the other hand, people recognize that, in order to influence these rules or ensure that they are upheld, they must work with others, hence Hannah Arendt's views or competing interests are reconciled with one another. However, politics in this broad sense is better thought of as a search for conflict resolution than as its achievement, as not all conflicts are, or can be, resolved. Nevertheless, the inescapable presence of diversity (we are not all alike) and definition of political power are 'acting in concert'.

This is why the heart of politics is often portrayed as a process of conflict resolution, in which rival scarcity (there is never enough to go around) ensure that politics is an inevitable feature of the human condition.

Any attempt to clarify the meaning of 'politics' must nevertheless address two major problems. The first is the

mass of associations that the word has when used in everyday language; in other words, politics is a 'loaded' term. Whereas most people think of, say, economics, geogra­phy, history and biology simply as academic subjects, few people come to politics without preconceptions. Many, for instance, automatically assume that students and teachers of politics must in some way be biased, finding it difficult to believe that the subject can be approached in an impartial and dispassionate manner. To make matters worse, politics is usually thought of as a 'dirty' word: it conjures up images of trouble, disruption and even vio­lence on the one hand, and deceit, manipulation and lies on the other. There is nothing new about such associa­tions.

As long ago as 1775, Samuel Johnson dismissed politics as 'nothing more than a means of rising in the world', while in the nineteenth century the US historian Henry Adams summed up politics as 'the systematic organization of hatreds'. Any attempt to define politics therefore entails trying to disentangle the term from its unsavory reputation by establishing that politics is valuable, even laudable, ac­tivity.

The second and more intractable difficulty is that even respected authorities cannot agree what the subject is about. Politics is defined in such different ways: as the exercise of power, the exercise of authority, the making of collective decisions, the allocation of scarce resources, the practice of deception and manipulation, and so on. The debate about 'what is politics?' is worth pursuing because it exposes some of the deepest intellectual and ideological disagreement in the academic study of the subject. The different views of politics examined here are as follows:

♦ politics as the art of government

♦ politics as public affairs

♦ politics as compromise and consensus

♦ politics as power and distribution of resources.

Учебное пособие для философов и политологов

II. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:
l)What is politics in the broadest sense?

2) What is politics as an academic subject? 3)What phenomena is politics linked to?

4) Why is the heart of politics portrayed as a process of
conflict resolution?

5) What difficulties do researchers face in classifying
the meanings of 'politics'?

6) What associations has the word 'politics' when used
in everyday language?

7) How do S. Johnson and H. Adams define this word?

8) What are the main definitions of respected authori­
ties concerning 'politics'?

9) Whose viewpoint would you support?

10) Why is the debate about 'what is politics?' worth
pursuing?

III. COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES:

1. Politics is linked to the phenomena of ... .

2. Arendt defined political power as ....

3. The heart of politics is portrayed as ... .

4. In clarifying the meaning of politics we face two
problems ....

5. Samuel Johnson dismissed politics as ... .

6. Henry Adams summed up politics as... .

7. Politics is defined in different ways such as ... .

8. I think politics is ... .

IV. FIND IN THE TEXT FACTS TO PROVE THAT:

1. Politics is related to conflict, on the one hand, and to
cooperation, on the other hand.

2. In understanding the term «politics» people face a
lot of problems.

3. Sometimes politics is thought of as a «dirty» word.

4. There were scholars who dismissed politics and those
who gave a high appraisal of its activity.

Part II

Political science

5. Politics is a subject of deep intellectual and ideological disagreements.

V. DIVIDE THE TEXT INTO LOGICAL PARTS AND
MAKE UP A PLAN OF THE TEXT.

VI.SUMMARIZE THE CONTENTS OF THE TEXT IN 8
SENTENCES.

VII. FIND IN THE TEXT SENTENCES WITH '-ING
FORMS' AND TRANSLATE THEM INTO RUSSIAN IN
WRITING.

WORD STUDY

I. FIND IN THE TEXT «DEFINING POLITICS» ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS FOR:

Исправлять; связывать; обеспечивать; признавать; примирять; достигать; поддерживать; защищать; решать; конкурировать; противопоставлять; подходить к пробле­ме; увлекать за собой; пытаться; спасать; соглашаться и проводить; вызывать в воображении.

П. GIVE RUSSIAN EQUIVALENTS FOR: Sense; inextricably; rival; wants; needs; a search; ines­capable; inevitable; diversity; scarcity; an attempt; biased; impartial; dispassionate; disruption; violence; deceit; unsa­vory; valuable; laudable; allocation; scarce; deception; dis­tribution.

III. TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES PAY­ING ATTENTION TO THE UNDERLINED WORDS AND PHRASES.

1) Whereas most people think of, say, economics, geog­raphy, history and biology simply as academic subjects few people come to politics without preconceptions.

10-Английский язык для философов

_____ Учебное пособие для философов и политологов_________

2)То make mattersworse, politics is usually thought of as a 'dirty' word.

3)As longas 1775, Samuel Johnson dismissed politics as 'nothing more than a means of rising in the words'.

4) The heartof politics is a process of cooperation and
peaceful solution of the global problems.

5) Studying politics is connected withstudying govern­
ment and exercise of authority.

6) The word «politics» is derived frompolis meaning
city-state.

7) Conflict resolutionis the main aim of all thoughtful

politicians.

8) The word «politics» may be treated in the broadsense
and in the narrowsense.

IV. MAKE UP YOUR OWN SENTENCES WITH THE
FOLLOWING WORD-COMBINATIONS:

Whereas; to make matters worse; to make matters better; as long as; the heart of; to be connected with; to be derived from; conflict resolution; in the broad sense; in the narrow sense; on the one hand; on the other hand.

V. ARRANGE THE FOLLOWING WORDS IN PAIRS
OF SYNONYMS:

rival dispassionate

needs nevertheless

to guarantee to try

however to ensure

inescapable lie

to attempt inevitable

impartial wants

deceit distribution

allocation competing

VI. FIND IN THE TEXT ANTONYMS FOR THE FOL­LOWING WORDS:

Part II

Political science

Agreement; passionate; partial; escapable; savory; to miss; to entangle.

VII. TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES
USING EITHER «POLITICS» OR «POLICY». PAY ATTEN­
TION TO DIFFERENT MEANINGS OF THE RUSSIAN
NOUN «ПОЛИТИКА».

Politics 1. Политика: наука, искусство управления государством; политическая деятельность.

2. Политические взгляды, убеждения.

Policy 1. Политика: home (internal) domestic policy — внутренняя политика.

Foreign policy — внешняя политика.

2. линия поведения, курс.

l)Old as she is, she takes great interest in ...

2) We must decide what our ... on this matter should be.

3) The moment they come together they would start ar­
guing about ...

4) When Г finished my student years at Oxford I had to
decide whether to devote my life to philosophy or to ... .

5) What is the industrial ... of the present British
government?

6) Though their ... were different they were great friends.

7) Honesty is the best ... .

VIII. DISCUSSION

Do you agree with the author's statement? Expressions below will be helpful

« ... the inescapable presence of diversity (we are not all alike) and of scarcity (there is never enough to go around) ensure that politics is an inevitable feature of the human condition.»

(I agree ...; I am afraid I can't agree ...; I'd like to say that ...; That's an interesting point of view, but...; I'd like to support the point of view about ...»)

10-2

10*

_____ Учебное пособие для философов и политологов

____________________ UNIT II________________

POLITICS AS THE ART OF GOVERNMENT Politics is not a science ... but an art', Chancellor Bis­marck is reputed to have told the German Reichstag. The art Bismarck had in mind was the art of government, the exercise of control within society through the making and enforcement of collective decisions. This is perhaps the classical definition of politics, developed from the original meaning of the term in Ancient Greece.

The word 'politics' is derived from polls, literally mean­ing city-state. Ancient Greek society was divided into a collec­tion of independent city-states, each of which possessed its own system of government. The largest and most influ­ential of these city-states was Athens, often portrayed as the cradle of democratic government. In this light, politics can be understood to refer to the affairs of the polls, in effect, 'what concerns the polis'. The modern form of this definition is therefore 'what concerns the state'. This view of politics is clearly evident in the everyday use of the term: people are said to be 'in politics' when they hold public office, or to be 'entering politics' when they seek to do so. It is also a definition which academic political science has helped to perpetuate.

In many ways, the notion that politics amounts to 'what concerns the state' is the traditional view of the discipline, reflected in the tendency for academic study to focus upon the personnel and machinery of government. To study politics is in essence to study government, or, more broadly, to study the exercise of authority. This view is advanced in the writing of the influential US political scientist David Easton (1979, 1981), who defined politics as the 'authori­tative allocation of values'.

However, what is striking about this definition is that it offers a highly restricted view of politics. Politics is what

Part II

Political science

takes place within a polity,a system of social organization centered upon the machinery of government departments and the like, and it is cabinet rooms, legislative chambers, government departments and the like, and it is engaged in by a limited and specific group of people, notably politicians, civil servants and lobbyists. This means that most people, most institutions and other educational institutions and most social activities can be regarded as being 'outside' politics. Businesses, schools and other educational institutions, community groups, families and so on are in this sense 'nonpolitical', because they are not engaged in 'running the country'. By the same token, to portray politics as an essentially state-bound activity is to ignore the increasingly important international or global influences upon modern life, such as the impact of transnational technology and multinational corporations. In this sense, this definition of politics is a hangover from the days when the nation-state could still be regarded as an independent actor in world affairs.

This definition can, however, be narrowed still further. This is evident in the tendency to treat politics as the equivalent of party politics. In other words, the realm of 'the political' is restricted to those state actors who are consciously motivated by ideological beliefs, and who seek to advance them through membership of a formal organiza­tion such as a political party. This is the sense in which politicians are described as 'political', whereas civil servants are seen as 'nonpolitical', as long as, of course, they act in neutral and professional fashion.

The link between politics and the affairs of the state also helps to explain why negative or pejorative images have so often been attached to politics. This is because, in the popular mind, politics is closely associated with the activities of politicians. Put brutally, politicians are often seen as power-seeking hypocrites who conceal personal ambition behind the rhetoric of public service and ideological

10-4

_____ Учебное пособие для философов и политологов

conviction. Indeed, this perception has become more common in the modern period as intensified media exposure has more effectively brought to light examples of corruption and dishonesty, giving rise to the phenomenon of anti-politics.This rejection of the personnel and machinery of conventional political life is rooted in a view of politics as self-serving, two-faced and unprincipled activity, clearly evident in the use of derogatory phrases such as 'office politics' and 'politicking'. Such an image of politics is sometimes traced back to the writings of Niccolo Machiavelli, who, in The Prince ([1531] 1961), developed a strictly realistic account of politics which drew attention to the use by political leaders of cunning cruelty and manipula­tion.

Such a negative view of politics reflects the essentially liberal perception that, as individuals are self-interested, political power is corrupting, because it encourages those 'in power' to exploit their position for personal advantage and at the expense of others. This is famously expressed in Lord Acton's (1834-1902) aphorism: 'power tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely'. Never­theless, few who view politics in this way doubt that politi­cal activity is an inevitable and permanent feature of so­cial existence. However venal politicians may be, there is a general acceptance that they are always with us. With­out some kind of mechanism for allocating authoritative values, society would simply disintegrate into a civil war of each against all, as the early social-contract theorists argued. The task is therefore not to abolish politicians and bring politics to an end, but rather to ensure that politics is conducted within a framework of checks and constraints that ensure that governmental power is not abused.

Notes:

Polis: (Greek) City-state; classically understood to imply the highest or most desirable form of social organization.

Part II

Political science

Polity:A society organized through the exercise of po­litical authority; for Aristotle, rule by the many in the interests of all.

Anti-politics:Disillusionment with formal and estab­lished political processes, reflected in nonparticipation, support for antisystem parties, or the use of direct ac­tion.

II. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS: l)What did Chancellor Bismarck have in mind when saying that 'politics is ... an art'?

2) What is the origin of the word 'politics'?

3) What is the modern form of the definition of 'politics'?

of politics?

6) What institutions are ignored according to these
definitions?

7) How can this definition be narrowed still further?

8) Can you explain why negative images are often attached
to politics?

9) What are the ways of overcoming these negative fea­
tures of political power?

10) Do you agree with Lord Acton's aphorism: 'Power
tends to corrupt, and absolute power corrupts absolutely'?
Prove it. , ■■'.

III. COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES:

1. Chancellor Bismarck said that politics is not a science
but ... .

2. The word 'politics' is derived from ... .

3. Athens was portrayed as ... .

4. People are said to be 'in politics' when ... .

5. To study politics means to study ... .

6. David Easton defined politics as ... .

7. Polity is a system of ... .

_____ Учебное пособие для философов и политологов_________

8. 'Nonpolitical' institutions are those which,... .

9. Politicians are described as ... .

10. Politicians are often seen as ... .

11. Mass media play a significant role in ... .

12. A negative view of politics is sometimes present
because ... .

IV. CONTRADICT THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS:

1. It was Plato who said, «Politics is not a science but
an art».

2. This classical definition of politics developed from
the original meaning of the term in Ancient Rome.

3. The largest and most influential city-state in those
times was Miletus.

4. It was Bismarck who defined politics as the 'authori­
tative allocation of values'.

5. Politics is what takes place within any institution.

6. Civil servants are seen as political along with politi­
cians.

7. Politicians are always seen as intelligent and loyal
people without any ambitions.

8. It was David Easton who in his work The Prince de­
veloped a strictly realistic account of politics.

9. N. Machiavelli said, «Power tends to corrupt, and
absolute power corrupts absolutely».

V. DIVIDE THE TEXT INTO LOGICAL PARTS AND
MAKE UP AN OUTLINE OF THE TEXT.

VI. SPEAK ON THE TEXT.

VII. FIND IN THE TEXT ALL PASSIVE CONSTRUC­
TIONS AND TRANSLATE THE SENTENCES INTO RUSSIAN.

VIII. FIND IN THE TEXT PARTICIPLE AND GERUND
AND TRANSLATE THE SENTENCES INTO RUSSIAN.

Part II

Political science

IX. TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES. PAY ATTENTION TO THE FUNCTIONS OF PARTICIPLE AND GERUND:

1) There is a unity in the world, but it is a unity result­
ing from diversity.

2) The most fruitful, the most plausible, and at once
the simplest and most flexible way was that discovered by
Locke.

3) Following up this line of speculation Berkeley was
led to postulate another mode of cognition.

4) He took the course of doubting everything except that
which was clearly indubitable.

5) However two points are already worth noting.

6) Descartes said that philosophy should begin by ac­
cepting only that which cannot possibly be doubted.

WORD STUDY

I. GIVE RUSSIAN EQUIVALENTS FOR THE FOLLOW­
ING ENGLISH WORDS:

To perpetuate; to seek to do something; to amount to; to advance; to be engaged in; to narrow; to conceal; to abuse; to argue; to abolish; to be rooted; to exploit; to trace back; to treat; to hold public office; to bring to light; to give rise to; to bring to an end.

II. ARRANGE THE FOLLOWING WORDS INTO PAIRS
OF SYNONYMS:

to try description disclosure sphere a benefit distribution to produce besides influence

allocation

impact

advantage

to seek

an account

exposure

realm

to give rise to

by the same token

_____ Учебное пособие для философов и политологов

III. TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES INTO RUSSIAN. SEE HOW YOU TRANSLATE THE WORDS «ADVANTAGE» AND «DISADVANTAGE». CONSULT YOUR DICTIONARY.

1) Take advantage of the sun before the rain comes back.

2) I found myself at a disadvantage in the argument.

3) And suddenly he saw how he could use this to his
advantage.

4) The younger brother has an advantage over the old­
er: he's more intelligent.

5) He took advantage of every opportunity to practice
the piano.

6) He had the advantage of first-rate education.

7) He was determined to take full advantage of the offer.

8) Many of the disadvantages of the scheme were quite

clear.

9) Their team is going to lose. They're clearly at a dis­
advantage.

IV. TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES. PAY ATTENTION TO DIFFERENT MEANINGS OF THE WORD «VIEW». CONSULT YOUR DICTIONARY.

1) In my view, the problem doesn't exist at all.

2) The speaker stood in full view of the crowd.

3) He stated his views on the matter.

4) What had you in views when you said that?

5) He is a man of strong political views.

6) I have a different point of view.

7) The latest summer fashions are now on view in the
big shops.

8) His views on war and peace have changed after the

elections.

V. TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES. PAY ATTENTION TO THE MEANINGS OF THE WORDS «AU­THORITY» AND «POWER», GIVEN BELOW.

Part II

Political science

Power: 1. могущество, власть, влияние;

2. полномочие

3. держава
Authority: 1. власть

2. власти (мн. число)

3. полномочие

4. авторитет, крупный специалист
1.I have no authority to take a decision.

2. Не has an authority in this field.

3. State nursery schools come under Local Education
Authorities.

4. Stability in the world greatly depends on the goodwill
of the Great Powers.

5. According to the principles of democracy all legisla­
tive power must belong to Parliament.

6. Congress makes all laws and Congress has the power
to introduce legislation.

7. The Monarch continued to be at the center of execu­
tive power.

8. As head of state the Monarch has the power to sign
international agreements.

9. The Queen in Parliament represents the supreme au­
thority within the United Kingdom.

10. Later many powers were transferred to the Cabinet.

VII. DISCUSSION

Look through the texts and answer the following ques­tions:

Aristotle (384-22BC)

Greek philosopher. Aristotle was a student of Plato and tutor of the young Alexander the Great. He established his own school of philosophy in Athens in 335 ВС; this was called the 'peripatetic school' after his tendency to walk up and down as he talked. His 22 surviving treatises, compiled as lecture notes, range over logic, physics, metaphysics, astronomy, meteorology, biology, ethnic and politics. In

_____ Учебное пособие для философов и политологов

the Middle Ages, Aristotle's work became the foundation of Islamic philosophy, and it was later incorporated into Christian theology. His best known political work is Politics, a study of the ideal constitution.

Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527)

Italian politician and author. The son of a civil lawyer. Machiavelli's knowledge of public life was gained from a sometimes precarious existence in politically unstable Florence. He served as Second Chancellor (1498-1512), and was dispatched on missions to France, Germany and through­out Italy. After a brief period of imprisonment and the restoration of Medici rule, Machiavelli embarked on a literary career. His major work, The Prince, published in 1531, drew heavily upon his first-hand observations of the state­craft of Cesare Borgia and the power politics that dominat­ed his period. It was written as a guide for the future prince of a united Italy. The adjective 'Machiavellian' subsequent­ly came to mean 'cunning and duplicitous'.

Notes:

treatise — трактат

duplicitous — двуличный

precarious — Опасный

1) What contribution did Aristotle make to philosophy?

2) What writings are mentioned here?
3)What is Machiavelli's contribution?

4) What problems did Machiavelli and Aristotle discuss
that unite them?

5) What influenced the difference in treating the same
problems by Machiavelli and Aristotle?

6) Where can we trace the influence of Aristotle's work?

7) What idea do you have when using the adjective 'Mach­
iavellian'?

VIII. LOOK THROUGH THE FOLLOWING DEFINI­TIONS OF THREE WORDS AND MAKE UP A PLAN FOR DISCUSSION.

Part II

Political science

Power

Power, in its broadest sense, is the ability to achieve a desired outcome, and it is sometimes referred to in terms of the 'power' to do something. This includes everything from the ability to keep oneself alive to the ability of government to promote economic growth. In politics, however, power is usually thought of as a relationship, that is, as the ability to influence the behaviour of others in a manner not of their choosing. It is referred to in terms of having 'power' over people. More narrowly, power may be associated with the ability to punish or reward, bringing it close to force or manipulation, in contrast to 'influence', which also encom­passes rational persuasion.

Authority

Authority can most simply be defined as 'legitimate power'. Whereas power is the ability to influence the behaviour or others, authority is the right to do so. Autho­rity is therefore based on an acknowledged duty to obey rather than on any form of coercion or manipulation. In this sense, authority is, power cloaked in legitimacy or rightfulness. Weber distinguished between three kinds of authority, based on the different grounds upon which obe­dience can be established: traditional authority is rooted in history, charismatic authority stems from personality, and legal-rational authority is grounded in a set of imper­sonal rules.

The state

The state is a political association that establishes sovereign jurisdiction within defined territorial borders and exercises authority through a set of permanent institutions. These institutions are those that are recognizably 'public' in that they are responsible for the collective organization of communal life and are funded at the public's expense. The state thus embraces the various institutions of government, but it also extends to the courts, nationalized industries, social-security system, and so forth; it can be identified

_____ Учебное пособие для философов и политологов_________

with the entire 'body politics'. For the German sociologist Max Weber, the state was defined by its monopoly of the means of 'legitimate violence'.

IX. LOOK THROUGH THE TEXTS AGAIN AND SAY WHAT UNITES THEM.

UNIT III________________

I. READ AND TRANSLATE THE TEXT.

POLITICS AS PUBLIC AFFAIRS

A second and broader conception of politics moves it beyond the narrow realm of government to what is thought of as 'public affair'. In other words, the distinction between 'the political' and 'the nonpolitical' coincides with the division between an essentially public sphere of life and what can be thought of as a private sphere. Such a view of politics is often traced back to the work of the famous Greek philosopher Aristotle. In Politics, Aristotle declared that 'man is by nature a political animal', by which he meant that it is only within a political community that human beings can live 'the good life'. From this viewpoint, then, politics is an ethical activity concerned with creating a 'just society'; it is what Aristotle called the 'master science'.

However, where should the line between 'public' life and 'private' life be drawn? The traditional distinction between the public realm and the private realm conforms to the division between the state and civil society. The insti­tutions of the state (the apparatus of government, the courts, the police, the army, the society-security system and so forth) can be regarded as 'public' in the sense that they are responsible for the collective organization of community life. Moreover, they are funded at the public's expense, out of taxation. In contrast, civil society consists of institution such as the family and kinship groups, private business,

Part

Political science

trade unions, clubs, community groups and so on that are 'private' in the sense that they are set up and funded by individual citizens to satisfy their own interests, rather than those of the larger society. On the basis of this 'pub­lic/private' division, politics is restricted to the activities of the state itself and the responsibilities which are proper­ly exercised by public bodies. Those areas of life that indi­viduals can and do manage for themselves (the economic, social, domestic, personal, cultural and artistic spheres, and so on) are therefore clearly 'nonpolitical'.

An alternative 'public/private' division is sometimes de­fined in terms of a further and more subtle distinction, namely that between 'the political' and 'the personal'. Although civil society can be distinguished from the state, it nevertheless contains a range of institutions that are thought of as 'pub­lic' in the wider sense that they are open institutions, ope­rating in public, to which the public has access. One of the crucial implications of this is that it broadens our notion of the political, transferring the economy in particular from the private to the public realm. A form of politics can thus be found in the workplace. Nevertheless, although this view regards institutions such as businesses, community groups, clubs and trade unions as 'public', it remains a restricted view of politics. According to this perspective, politics does not, and should not, infringe upon 'personal' affairs and institutions. Feminist thinkers in particular have pointed out that this implies that politics effectively stops at the front door; it does not take place in the family, in domestic life, or in personal relationships. This view is illustrated, for example, by the tendency of politicians to draw a clear dis­tinction between their professional conduct and their per­sonal or domestic behaviour. By classifying, say, cheating on their partners or treating their children badly as «person­al» matters, they are able to deny the political significance of such behaviour on the grounds that it does not touch on their conduct of public affairs.

Учебное пособие для философов и политологов_________

The view of politics as an essentially 'public' activity has generated both positive and negative images. In a tra­dition dating back to Aristotle, politics has been seen as a noble and enlightened activity precisely because of its 'pub­lic' character. This position was firmly endorsed by Han­nah Arendt, who argued in The Human Condition (1958) that politics is the most important form of human activity because it involves interaction amongst free and equal citizens. It thus gives meaning to life and affirms the uniqueness of each individual. Theorists such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and John Stuart Mill who portrayed political participation as a good in itself have drawn similar conclusions. Rousseau argued that only through the direct and continuous participation of all citizens in political life can the state be bound to the common good, or what he called the 'general will'. In Mill's view, involvement in 'public' affairs is educational in that it promotes the perso­nal, moral and intellectual development of the individual.

In sharp contrast, however, politics as public activity has also been portrayed as a form of unwanted interference. Liberal theorists in particular have exhibited a preference for civil society over the state, on the grounds that 'private' life is a realm of choice, personal freedom and individual responsibility. This is most clearly demonstrated by attempts to narrow the realm of 'the political', commonly expressed as the wish to 'keep politics out of private activities' such as business, sport and family life. From this point of view, politics is unwholesome quite simply because it prevents people acting as they choose. For example, it may interfere with how firms conduct their business, or with how and whom we play sports, or with how we bring up our children.

II. ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS:

1) What is a broader conception of politics?

2) What is the distinction between «the political» and
«the nonpolitical»?

Part II

Political science

3)Who declared that «man is by nature a political ani­mal»? Why?

4) What are the institutions of the state and what are
they responsible for?

5) What institutions are called «private» and how are
they set up and funded?

6) What negative images does the view of politics as an
essentially public activity generate?

7) Who portrays politics as a form of unwanted inter­
ference?

8) What are their grounds?

9) Why is politics unwholesome?
1.0) What examples prove it?

III. COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES:

1. In Politics Aristotle declared that 'man is ... .

2. The institutions of the state can be regarded as 'pub­
lic' because ..,. .

3. Civil society consists of institutions such as ... .

4. Politics is restricted to the activities of ... .

5. According to Arendt, politics is the most important
form of human activity because ... .

6. In Mill's view, involvement in 'public' affairs is edu­
cational as ....

7. Liberal theorists exhibited a preference for... .

IV. FIND IN THE TEXT THE FACTS TO PROVE THAT:

1. There are political and nonpolitical spheres of life.

2. Personal life should be out of politics.

3. Feminist thinkers supported this point of view.

4. The view of politics can generate both positive and
negative images.

5. Many scholars portrayed political participation as a
good in itself.

6. Liberal theorists as well paid much attention to pub­
lic activity.

Учебное пособие для философов и политологов_________

V. DIVIDE THE TEXT INTO LOGICAL PARTS AND
MAKE UP AN OUTLINE OF THE TEXT.

VI. SUMMARIZE THE CONTENTS OF THE TEXT IN
10 SENTENCES.

VII. FIND IN THE TEXT THE SENTENCES WITH
PARTICIPLE, GERUND AND INFINITIVE AND TRANS­
LATE THEM INTO RUSSIAN.

VIII. TRANSLATE THE TEXT BELOW IN WRITING
FOR 15 MINUTES.

Civil Society

The term civil society has been defined in a variety of ways. Originally, it meant a 'political community', a society governed by law, under the authority of a state. More com­monly, it is distinguished from the state, and the term is used to describe institutions that are 'private' in that they are independent from government and organized by individuals in pursuit of their own ends. 'Civil society' therefore refers to a realm of autonomous groups and associations: businesses, interest groups, clubs, families and so on. Hegel, however, distinguished between the family and civil society, viewing the latter as a sphere of egoism and selfishness.

WORD STUDY

I. GIVE RUSSIAN EQUIVALENTS FOR:

To coincide, to conform, to be responsible; at the pub­lic's expense; in contrast; crucial, to infringe upon, to en­dorse; to promote; interference; unwholesome; to conduct.

II. GIVE ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS FOR:
Другими словами; по природе; справедливое общество;

провести различие (черту); налогообложение; наоборот; решающий; посягать на права; отрицать; касаться; ут­вердить; подтверждать; общее благо; нежелательное вме­шательство; в частности; на тех основаниях, что.

Part II

Political science

III. TRANSLATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES IN WRITING PAYING ATTENTION TO THE UNDERLINED WORDS AND WORD-COMBINATIONS:

1. It isonly withina political community that human
beings can live «the good life».

2. Politics is an ethical activity concerned withcreating
a just society.

3. It is sometimes defined in terms ofa further dis­
tinction, namely thatbetween «the political» and «the per­
sonal»

4. Liberal theorists in particularmade an emphasis on
personal freedom and individual responsibility.

5. In other words,some of them claimed that private
life is a realm of choice.

6. From his point of view,participation in public af­
fairs promotes intellectual development.

7. We should draw a distinction between public and pri­
vate, namely,between political and personal.

IV. ARRANGE THE FOLLOWING WORDS IN PAIRS
OF SYNONYMS:

to restrict to confirm

to coincide to assert

to infringe upon to deceive

to endorse to limit

to cheat to correspond

crucial to encroach

to affirm decisive

V. ARRANGE THE FOLLOWING WORDS IN PAIRS
OF ANTONYMS:

to create to promote

state kinship

to restrict mild

to deny to destroy

distinction civil society

Political science

Part

to broaden to assert

sharp

to prevent

Private Civil society: autonomous bodies: busi­nesses, trade unions, clubs, families, and so onPersonal realm: family and domestic life

VI. DISCUSSION. Analyze the diagrams below and composeas many questions as possible. Public

State: apparatus of government

Public realm:

politics, commerce, work,

Art, culture, and so on

VII. LOOK THROUGH PARAGRAPH 4. SPEAK ABOUT ARISTOTLE'S POSITION ON POLITICS AS AN ESSEN­TIALLY 'PUBLIC ACTIVITY, AND THE VIEWS OF THE THEORISTS WHO ENDORSE ARISTOTLE'S POSITION.

UNIT IV

I. READ AND TRANSLATE THE TEXT