Устойчивые словосочетания, используемые при кратком изложении содержания текста

1. The article deals with (the problem)….

2. The subject of the article (text) is…

3. The title of the text is…

4. At the beginning (of the text) the author

- describes…

- dwells on…(подробно останавливается на )

- explains…

- touches upon…(касается, слегка затрагивает (тему, вопрос)

- analyses…

- comments (высказывает своё мнение)

- characterizes…(характеризует, описывает)

- underlines.. (подчёркивает)

- reveals…(раскрывает, показывает)

- considers…(рассматривает)

- examines…(исследует; изучает)

5.The article begins (opens) with

- the description of…

- a review of (обзором)

- the analysis of…

6. Then/ after that the author

- passes on to …(переходит к)

- gives a detailed/thorough analysis/description…(дает подробный/ тщательный анализ /описание)

7. It is reported…

8. It is specially noted…

9. It is spoken in detail…

10. Details are given of…

11. The article gives a detailed analyses of…

12. Much attention is given to…

13. The text gives a valuable information on…

14. It shows the advantages and disadvantages of…

15. It is expected that…

16. Research has shown that…

17. …is/are proposed.

18. is/are examined.

19. …is/are discussed briefly.

20. is/are discussed.

21. To finish with, the author describes…

22. At the end of the article the author

- draws our attention to

- makes up the conclusion that …( делает вывод)

- sums it all up (by saying)

23. In conclusion the author…

24. In the future…

25. I’ve learnt a lot…

26. To sum up…

27. The conclusion is as follows..

Вариант 1

Задание 1.Выберите правильную форму глагола из двух предложенных.

1. I … that the situation is out of control
A. see	B. am seeing
2. If I … you $5, what will you buy?
A. will give	B. give
3. Her eyes are red. … ?
A. Is she crying	B. Has she been crying
4. George was angry. He …for Nora for two hours.
A. had been waiting	B. was waiting
5. Students ….their books and did the exercise.
A. opened	B. had opened
4. The workers say that they ….. a district by the beginning of this year.
A. will build up	B. will have built up

Задание 2.Подчеркните сказуемое в предложении, определите его видо-временную форму и переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. These robots are used in space projects, nuclear reactor stations, and underwater exploration research.

2. Earlier robots were usually blind and deaf.

3. In the meantime, the robotics revolution is already beginning to change the kind of work that people do.

Задание 3.Укажите, какой частью речи является выделенная форма:

a) герундием (Gerund); b) инфинитивом(Infinitive);c) причастием настоящего времени (Participle I); d) причастием прошедшего времени (Participle II). Переведите предложения.

1. A weldingtool used by a human worker weighs about 100 pounds or more and is difficult to handle.

2. Robots shine at installing chips in printed circuit boards because of a capability that robots have that people don’t.

3. Newer types of robots are fitted with video cameras and other sensing devices.

Задание 4.Read the text. Then read the titles. Which of the following titles is the best?

1. New Models of Robot in Stock Now.

2. Humans Against Robots. Who is the Best?

3. Artificial Intellect — Reality or Fiction?

4. The Robotics Revolution.

Задание 5.Read the text again. Choose the best sentence from the list below to complete each gap.

Many of the robots in use today do jobs that are especially difficult for human workers. These are the types of jobs that require great strength or pose danger. 1 ____. A welding tool used by a human worker weighs about 100 pounds or more and is difficult to handle. As mechanical supermen, robots may be called upon to do anything from moving heavy components between workstations on a factory floor to carrying bags of cement.

Spay painting is another task suited to robots because robots do not need to breathe. 2 ____. Robots are better at this task, not because they are faster or cheaper than humans, but because they work in a place where humans cannot.

Third in the list of useful jobs for robots is the assembly of electronic parts. Robots shine at installing chips in printed circuit boards because of a capability that robots have that people don’t. 3 ____. This automatic accuracy is particularly valuable in this kind of industry because locating and fixing mistakes is costly.

Earlier robots were usually blind and deaf but newer types of robots are fitted with video cameras and other sensing devices that can detect heat, texture, size, and sound. 4 ____.

In their efforts to expand the range of robotic applications, researchers are looking beyond traditional designs to examine a variety of potential models from the biological world. The industrial arm is a classic example. Scientists have been able to model robots to imitate the vertebrate spine of a snake in order to paint the interior of automobiles. 5 ____.

The challenge of equipping robots with the skills to operate independently, outside of a factory or laboratory, has made heavy demands on the ingenuity and creativity of academic, military, and industrial scientists for years. Simply put, robot hands — like robot legs, or eyes, or reasoning powers – have a long way to go before they can approach what biological evolution has achieved over the course of hundreds of millions of years. Much more will have to happen in laboratories around the world before robots can be compared to nature’s handwork.

In the meantime, the robotics revolution is already beginning to change the kind of work that people do. The boring and dangerous jobs are now performed by robots. By the turn of the century, more and more humans will be required for tasks that machines cannot do.

a) These robots are used in space projects, nuclear reactor stations, and underwater exploration research.

b) Unlike human painters, they are unaffected by the poisonous fumes.

c) For example, robots are particularly useful in the auto-manufacturing industry where parts of automobiles must be welded together.

d) They have simulated the muscle structure and movement of an elephant’s trunk in an attempt to create a robotic arm capable of lifting heavy objects.

e) A robot, once properly programmed, will not put a chip in the wrong place.

Задание 6.Choose the best answer to these questions according to the text.

1. What kind of job do robots do today?

a) They usually do the types of jobs, which are interesting for human workers.

b) They usually do the types of jobs, which are very simple for human workers.

c) They usually do the types of jobs, which are very dangerous and require great strength.

2. Why do robots do very well at installing chips in printed circuit boards?

a) Because robots work very quickly.

b) Because this kind of job is very dangerous for people.

c) Because robots have the ability to put a chip in the proper place if they are once programmed properly.

3. Where do researchers try to find examples of potential models?

a) in the technical world,

b) in the chemical world,

c) in the biological world.

4. What do researchers try to teach robots to do?

a) They try to teach robots to operate independently, outside of a factory or laboratory.

b) They try to teach robots to fly.

c) They try to teach robots to write fiction books.

5. What kind of jobs will more and more humans be required for by the end of the century?

a) for jobs which are too dangerous for robots.

b) for jobs which are too easy for robots.

c) for jobs which only humans can do.

Задание 7. Here are some dictionary definitions of words from the text. Each word has more than one definition. Choose the definition that fits each of the words in the text best.

1. examine

a) if you examine something, you look at it or consider it carefully.

b) if a teacher examines you, he or she finds out how much you know by asking you questions or by making you take an examination.

2. model

a) a model is a three- dimensional copy of an object, usually one that is smaller than the object.

b) if a system is used as a model, people copy it in order to achieve similar results.

3. handle

a) the part of an object that you hold in order to carry it or operate it.

b) if you handle something, you hold it and move it about in your hands.

4. assembly

a) a large number of people, gathered together, especially a group of people who meet regularly to make laws.

b) the assembly of a machine or device is the process of fitting its parts together.

Задание 8. Findwords and expressions which mean the same as the following.

1. manipulate

2. correcting

3. expensive

4. increase

5. copy

Задание 9.Make am outline of the text in 5–7 sentences.

Вариант 2

Задание 1. Выберите правильную форму глагола из двух предложенных.

1. The sausages … delicious.
A. are tasting	B. taste
2. He will be angry if you … home late.
A. will come	B. come
3. "How many exams	?" "I think, five".
A. does he pass	B. has he passed
4. When … to take a course in statistics?
A. did she choose	B. has she chosen
5. Bill … about his answer during the lunch break.
A. had been thinking	B. thought
6. We are going to buy a car. By the end of next month our family …money for it.
A. will save	B. will have saved

1. E-mail has become a key part of the communications networks of most modern offices.

2. Since all e-mail addresses are written in Latin script, no special procedures are required to locate one in Russia.

3. Newer-generation networks use optical fiber connections.

Задание 3.Укажите, какой частью речи является выделенная форма:

1. Other methods used for wide-area networking include telephone and communications-satellite linkage.

2. E-mail services use a central computer to store messages and data and to route them to their intended destination.

3. The computer is rapidly taking over graphics design, production scheduling, and engineering design.

I. Read the text. Then read the titles. Which of the following titles is the best?

a) Office Equipment.

b) Office Automation.

c) Computers and Periphery.

d) How the Modem Works.

The rapid growth of the service sector of the economy has furnished a new market for sophisticated office automation. Computers 1_______and specialized software programs are taking over tasks such as facsimile transmission or FAX, mail, and telecommunications that were once performed by separate pieces of equipment. In fact, the computer has virtually taken the place of typewriters, calculators, and manual accounting techniques and is rapidly taking over graphics design, production scheduling, and engineering design.

Desktop PCs have become increasingly affordable as a result of industry-wide adoption of the architecture of the PC introduced in 1981. Although it has become feasible to provide virtually every office worker with a PC, 2________. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, many companies began programs of linking or "networking" multiple PCs into a unified system.

The local area network (LAN) was created in response to the need for a standardized system of linking computers together in a company. The most common method used to connect computers to a network is by means of coaxial cables. Newer-generation networks use optical fiber connections. When computers are not in close physical proximity, networks may use microwave radio or infrared radiation to link the computers. Microwave radio requires a dish antenna for transmission and reception; infrared radiation requires a lens for transmission and a mirror and lens for reception.3________.

The need for computer "connectivity" has established the usefulness of the peripheral device known as the modem. Modems permit two computers to communicate by telephone in order to access databases, transmit files, upload and download facsimile transmissions, and send and receive electronic mail. Early transmission speeds using this equipment were relatively slow—300 baud. 4__________.

Text materials in typed or printed form can be input directly into a computer by means of a scanner. To read text, optical character recognition (OCR) software must first be used to convert printed documents electronically into computer-readable files. Scanners obviate the need to rekey printed text in order to input it; they can also be used to input graphic material.

Computer-based electronic message systems are an alternative to telephonic communications or conventional interoffice memoranda.

E-mail has become a key part of the communications networks of most modern offices. Data and messages can be transmitted from one computer to another using telephone lines, microwave links, communications satellites, or other telecommunications equipment.5_________. E-mail is sent through a company's own local area network or beyond, through a nationwide or worldwide communications network. E-mail services use a central computer to store messages and data and to route them to their intended destination. With a subscription to a public e-mail network, an individual PC user needs only a modem and a telephone to send and receive written or vocal messages.

II. Read the text again. Choose the best sentence from the list below to complete each gap

a) Other methods used for wide-area networking include telephone and communications-satellite linkage.

b) Since all e-mail addresses are written in Latin script, no special procedures are required to locate one in Russia.

c) either stand-alone or as part of a network

d) The same message can be sent to a number of different addresses.

e) Some modems now operate at speeds of more than 50,000 baud and have error-checking and data-compression features.

f) It is more cost-effective for PC users to share files and common peripherals such as printers, facsimile boards, modems, and scanners.

g) It can narrow down the scope of the search considerably.

III. Choose the best answer to these questions according to the text.

1. When did it become possible to provide each office worker with a PC?

a) in 1981,

b) in the late 1980s,

c) in the early 1990s.

2. What may networks use to link computers, which are not in direct closeness?

a) optical fiber connections,

b) telephone and communications – satellite linkage,

c) microwave radio and infrared radiation.

3. How is the device, one of the functions of which is to send and receive electronic mail, called?

a) a scanner,

b) a modem,

c) a fax.

4. What is the device used to input graphic material?

a) a printer,

b) a Xerox,

c) a scanner.

5. What should a PC user have to subscribe to a public e-mail network?

a) modem and scanner,

b) modem and telephone,

c) telephone and printer.

IV. Here are some dictionary definitions of words from the text. Each word has more than one definition. Choose the definition that fits each of the words in the text best.

1) program	a) a scheduled radio or television broadcast,
	b) a sequence of instructions fed into a computer.
2) office	a) a room or building where business is carried out,
	b) a position of authority.
3) satellite	a) a planet orbiting another,
	b) a man-made object orbiting the earth, moon, etc.
4) address	a) a place where a person resides,
	b) a specific memory location where information is stored.

V. Find words and expressions which mean the same as the following.

1) correspondence

2) apparatus

3) to contain

4) to allow

5) to keep

VI. Make up an outline of the text (7-9 sentences).

Вариант 3

Задание 1. Выберите правильную форму глагола из двух предложенных.

1. … this party?
A. Do you enjoy	B. Are you enjoying
2. I will write to you as soon as I … .
A. will be able to	B. can
3. It is 5 o'clock now. My brother …… for his History class and I …..a composition.
A. is preparing, am writing	B. has been preparing, am writing
4. I …. the news when the telephone rang.
A. watched	B. was watching
5. It had been raining all day and the roads ……. very wet.
A. had been	B. were
6. Julia … all the housework by three o’clock and we’ll go for a walk.
A. will finish	B. will have finished

1. Like other waves of energy, sound normally travels in straight lines, but sound can turn corners.

2. Cellular calls are picked up by the towers and relayed to the rest of the telephone network.

3. New cellular telephones have several features.

Задание 3.Укажите, какой частью речи является выделенная форма:

1. Cellular telephones work by transmitting radio waves to cellular towers.

2. The central switching station handling cellular calls in a given area is directly connected to the rest of the wired telephone system.

3. Because mobile telephones use radio waves to send and receive calls, the device must include a power source.

Задание 4.Read the text. Then read the titles. Which of the following titles is the best?

d) Cellular Phone Network.

e) Personal Communications Services.

f) Cellular Radio Telephone

g) Types of Telephones.

Cellular radio telephone is also called cellular telephone or cell phone, it is a low-powered, lightweight radio transceiver (a combination transmitter-receiver) that provides voice telephone service to mobile users. Cellular telephones operate as portable telephones; whereas normal telephones require a cord that connects to a jack in order to access the extensive wire line networks operated by local telephone companies, cellular telephones are not restricted by a cord. 1________.

Cellular telephones work by transmitting radio waves to cellular towers. 2 ________. The area a tower can cover is referred to as a cell; the towers within these cells are networked to a central switching station, usually by wire, fiber-optic cable, or microwave. The central switching station handling cellular calls in a given area is directly connected to the rest of the wired telephone system. Cellular calls are picked up by the towers and relayed to the rest of the telephone network. Since the cells overlap, as a mobile caller moves from one cell into another, the towers "hand off" the call so communication is uninterrupted.

3________, and cellular coverage is increasing in rural areas. Due to the convenience and mobility of cellular telephones, users generally pay a higher fee than they would for normal telephone use. A newer generation of cellular radio technology, called Personal Communications Services (PCS), operates much like earlier cellular services, but at higher frequencies (around 1900 MHz). PCS also utilizes completely digital transmissions, rather than the analog transmissions that many current cellular telephones use. Digital transmissions convert sound into digital form, which can be transmitted faster and more efficiently than analog signals.

Both cellular radio and PCS use high-frequency radio waves to transmit calls. High-frequency waves have short wavelengths that pass by a given point at a very high rate. They provide better sound quality than lower-frequency waves (such as AM radio) and ensure reliable cellular links to and from towers over short distances. However, high-frequency signals cannot effectively travel as far as low-frequency signals. For cellular networks, this limited range is advantageous, because it means the same frequencies can be reused at nearby locations. This ability to reuse frequencies is helpful, because there are a limited number of radio frequencies available to cell phone companies. 4________.

The transceiver inside a cellular phone is a much more complex device than a conventional phone used over the wire line network. A cellular telephone has circuitry that creates a unique identity code that is used to locate and track the telephone and is necessary for coordinating calls to and from the telephone, and for billing such calls.

New cellular telephones have several features. These new phones have a small liquid crystal screen that can display the telephone number that is being called, the number of an incoming call, or a short text message, much like a pager displays this information. Other types of cellular telephones have a variety of functions that include a memory for frequently called numbers and a lock to deter theft. 5________.

Rechargeable batteries provide the usual source of power, but most cell phones can also be attached to the cigarette lighter in a vehicle or to some other external power device.

Задание 5.Read the text again. Choose the best sentence from the list below to complete each gap.

1. These towers vary in the area they cover and can receive nearby cellular telephone signals from 1,5 – 56 km distances.

2. Like other waves of energy, sound normally travels in straight lines, but sound can turn corners.

3. It also allows cellular network provides to accommodate a larger number of users.

4. Because mobile telephones use radio waves to send and receive calls, the device must include a power source.

5. Cellular telephones have become very popular with professionals and consumers as a way to communicate while away their regular phones.

6. The human ear does not hear all frequencies of sound in the same way, and a low sound is perceived as being less loud than a high sound of the same intensify.

7. Cellular phone networks exist in most metropolitan areas.

Задание 6.Choose the best answer on these questions according to the text.

1. What is the other name of cellular telephones?

a. voice telephone service,

b. radio transceivers,

c. cellular radio telephones.

2. Where are radio waves of cellular telephones transmitted to?

a. to cellular towers,

b. directly to the wired telephone system,

c. to rural areas.

3. What type of transmissions is more effective?

a. analog,

b. digital.

4. What is the unique identity code set aside for?

a. to concert side into digital form,

b. to locate and track the telephone,

c. to display the telephone number.

5. What are the functions of mobile telephones?

a. to receive nearby cellular telephone signals,

b. to send and receive calls,

c. for billing telephone calls.

Задание 7.Here are some dictionary definitions of the words from the text. Each word has more than one definition. Choose the definition that fits each of the words in the text best.

1. cell

a) a microscopic unit of living matter enclosing a nucleus with self-producing genes,

b) unit of an apparatus for producing electric current by chemical action, often of metal plates in acid, often part of a battery.

2. wave

a) long ridge of water, esp. on the sea, between two long hollows,

b) wave like motion by which heat, light, sound or electricity is spread or carried.

3. company

a) persons with whom one spends one’s time,

b) number of persons united for business or commerce.

4. number

a) quantity or amount,

b) one issue of a periodical, esp. for one day, week, etc.

Задание 8.Find words and expressions which mean the same as the following.

1. demand

2. zone

3. usually

4. profitable

5. fluid

Задание 9. Make an outline of the text in 7-10 sentences.

Вариант 4

Задание 1.Выберите правильную форму глагола из двух предложенных.

1. You haven’t said a word all morning. What … about?
A. are you thinking	B. do you think
2. Turn the lights off before you … to bed.
A. will go	B. go
3. It is clear to me that his time for action	.
A. has come	B. comes
4. She …. home when she saw the accident.
A. was walking	B. had walked
5. How long ago …. this course?
A. had you taken	B. did you take
6. David dreams that he will become a successful lawyer by the time he …thirty years old.
A. is	B. will be

1.GPC is used by aircraft and skips for en route navigation and for airport or harbor approaches.

2. Because the GPS user does not need to communicate with the satellite, GPS can serve an unlimited number of users.

3. GPS, formally known as the Navstar Global Positioning System, was initiated in 1973.

Задание 3.Укажите, какой частью речи является выделенная форма:

1. Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based radio-navigation system, consisting of 24 satellites and ground support.

2. By taking a measurement from a fourth satellite, the receiver avoids the need for an atomic clock.

3. In a method called precision farming, GPS is used to monitor and control the application of agricultural fertilizer and pesticides.

Задание 4.Read the text. Then read the titles. Which of the following titles is the best?

a. Space Satellites.

b. Global Positioning System.

c. Segments of Global Positioning System.

d. Radio-Navigation Systems.

Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based radio-navigation system, consisting of 24 satellites and ground support. GPS provides users with accurate information about their position and velocity, as well as the time, anywhere in the world and in all weather conditions.

GPS, formally known as the Navstar Global Positioning System, was initiated in 1973.1________. GPS satellites carry atomic clocks that provide extremely accurate time. The time information is placed in the codes broadcast by the satellite so that a receiver can continuously determine the time the signal was broadcast. The signal contains data that a receiver uses to compute the locations of the satellites and to make other adjustments needed for accurate positioning. The receiver uses the time difference between the time of signal reception and the broadcast time to compute the distance, or range, from the receiver to the satellite. The receiver must account for propagation delays, or decreases in the signal's speed caused by the ionosphere and the troposphere. With information about the ranges to three satellites and the location of the satellite when the signal was sent, the receiver can compute its own three-dimensional position.

An atomic clock synchronized to GPS is required in order to compute ranges from these three signals. However, by taking a measurement from a fourth satellite, the receiver avoids the need for an atomic clock. 2_______.GPS comprises three segments: the space, control, and user segments. The space segment includes the satellites and the Delta rockets. GPS satellites fly in circular orbits at an altitude of 20,100 km (12,500 mi) and with a period of 12 hours. The orbits are tilted to the earth's equator by 55 degrees to ensure coverage of polar regions.3________. Each satellite contains four atomic clocks.

The control segment includes the master control station in Colorado, and monitor stations in the Atlantic, Indian and South Pacific Oceans. These stations monitor the GPS satellites. The control segment uses measurements collected by the monitor stations to predict the behavior of each satellite's orbit and clock. The prediction data is uplinked, or transmitted, to the satellites for transmission to the users. 4________.

The user segment includes the equipment of the military personnel and civilians who receive GPS signals. With more than 500,000 GPS receivers, the civilian community has its own large and diverse user segment. Surveyors use GPS to save time over standard survey methods.5_______. GPS tracking systems are used to route and monitor delivery vans and emergency vehicles. In a method called precision farming, GPS is used to monitor and control the application of agricultural fertilizer and pesticides. GPS is available as an in-car navigation aid and is used by hikers and hunters. It is also used on the Space Shuttle. Because the GPS user does not need to communicate with the satellite, GPS can serve an unlimited number of users.

Задание 5. Read the text again. Choose the best sentence from the list below to complete each gap.

1. We know that the atom is mostly empty space with a minute central nucleus some tens of thousands of times smaller than the atom.

2. Powered by solar cells, the satellites continuously orient themselves to point their solar panels toward the sun and their antennae toward the earth.

3. GPC is used by aircraft and skips for en route navigation and for airport or harbor approaches.

4. GPC determines location by computing the difference between the time that a signal is sent and the time it is received.

5. That makes it possible to send signals long distances, and in the XX century the world was united without wires.

6. Thus, the receiver uses four satellites to compute latitude, longitude, altitude, and time.

7. The control segment also ensures that the GPC satellite orbits and clocks remain within acceptable limits.

Задание 6 . Choose the best answer to these questions according to the text.

1. What are the constituent parts of Global Positing System?

a) solar cells, solar panels,

b) latitude, longitude, altitude, and time,

c) 24 satellites and ground support.

2. When was GPC initiated?

a) in 1973,

b) in 1955,

c) in 1971.

3. What is the way to avoid the need for an atomic clock?

a) to use a code,

b) to take a measurement from a fourth satellite,

c) to account for propagation delays.

4. Why are the orbits of GPC satellites titled to the earth’s equator?

a) to avoid the need for an atomic clock,

b) to orient themselves to point their solar panels, toward the sun and their antennae toward the earth,

c) to ensure coverage of polar regions.

5. What segment is necessary to predict the behavior of each satellite’s orbit and clock?

a) the space segment,

b) the control segment,

c) the user segment.

Задание 7. Here are some dictionary definitions of words from the text. Each word has more than one definition. Choose the definition that fits each of the words in the text best.

1. time

a. the passing of all the days, months, and years, taken as a whole;

b. occasion.

2. receiver

a. person who receives,

b. part of an apparatus for receiving smth.

3. segment

a. part cut off or marked off by a line,

b. division or section.

4. control

a. power or authority to direct, order or restrain;

b. station at which cars taking part in a race may stop for overhaul, etc.

Задание 8.Find words and expressions which mean the same as the following.

1. backing

2. guarantee

3. have or hold within itself

4. staff

5. unbounded

Задание 9.Make an outline of the text in 7-8 sentences.

Вариант 5

Задание 1. Выберите правильную форму глагола из двух предложенных.

1. Why … your pockets? Have you lost anything?
A. are you feeling	B. do you feel
2. He will be angry if you … home late.
A. will come	B. come
3. How long …. on this problem so far?
A. do you work	B. have you been working
4. We were happy to hear that we …. the exam.
A. were passing	B. had passed
5. My uncle had been the headmaster of that school for thirty years before he…...
A. had retired	B. retired
6. David …. to become a lawyer.
A. is studying	B. will have been studying

1.The address of a Web document helps the client computer find and connect to the server that holds the page.

2. Applets, for example, are mini-computer programs that are written in computer programming languages such as Visual Basic and Java.

3. Each Web document is written as plain text, and the instructions

Задание 3.Укажите, какой частью речи является выделенная форма:

1. This method of accessing information is called associative access.

2. When users want to access the Web, they use the Web browser on their client computer to connect to a Web server.

3. Web servers hold Web documents and the media associated with them

Задание 4.Read the text. Then read the titles. Which of the following title is the best?

a. How the Computer Works.

b. How the Web Works.

c. The World Wide Web.

d. How the Internet Works.

When users want to access the Web, they use the Web browser on their client computer to connect to a Web server. Client computers connect to the Web in one of two ways. Client computers with dedicated access to the Web connect directly to the Web through a router (a piece of computer hardware that determines the best way to connect client and server computers) or by being part of a larger network with a direct connection to the Web. Client computers with dial-up access to the Web connect to the Web through a modem,1________. Some modems send signals over cable television lines or special high-capacity telephone lines. The client computer and the Web server use a set of rules for passing information back and forth. The Web browser knows another set of rules with which it can open and display information that reaches the client computer.

Web servers hold Web documents and the media associated with them.2________. Client computers access information from Web servers, and any computer that a person uses to access the Web is a client, so a client could be any type of computer. The set of rules that clients and servers use to talk to each other is called a protocol. The Web, and all Internet formats, uses the protocol called TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). However, each part of the Internet—such as the Web, gopher systems, and File Transfer Protocol (FTP) systems—uses a slightly different system to transfer files between clients and servers.

The address of a Web document helps the client computer find and connect to the server that holds the page. The address of a Web page is called a Uniform Resource Locator (URL). A URL is a compound code that tells the client’s browser three things: the rules the client should use to reach the site, the Internet address that uniquely designates the server, and the location within the server’s file system for a given item. An example of a URL is http://encarta.msn.com/. The first part of the URL, http://, shows that the site is on the World Wide Web. Most browsers are also capable of retrieving files with formats from other parts of the Internet, such as gopher and FTP. Other Internet formats use different codes in the first part of their URLs—for example, gopher uses gopher:// and FTP uses ftp://.The next part of the URL, encarta.msn.com, gives the name, or unique Internet address, of the server on which the Web site is stored. Some URLs specify certain directories or files, such as http://encarta.msn.com/explore/default.asp—explore is the name of the directory in which the file default.asp is found.

The Web holds information in many forms, including text, graphical images, and any type of digital media files: including video, audio, and virtual reality files. Some elements of Web pages are actually small software programs in their own right. These objects, called applets (3_______), follow a set of instructions written by the person that programmed the applet. Applets allow users to play games on the Web, search databases, perform virtual scientific experiments, and many other actions.

The codes that tell the browser on the client computer how to display a Web document correspond to a set of rules called Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). Each Web document is written as plain text, and the instructions that tell the client computer how to present the document are contained within the document itself, encoded using special symbols called HTML tags. The browser knows how to interpret the HTML tags, so the document appears on the user’s screen as the document designer intended. In addition to HTML, some types of objects on the Web use their own coding. Applets, for example, are mini-computer programs that are written in computer programming languages such as Visual Basic and Java.

Client-server communication, URLs, and HTML allow Web sites to incorporate hyperlinks, which users can use to navigate through the Web. Hyperlinks are often phrases in the text of the Web document that link to another Web document by providing the document’s URL when the user clicks their mouse on the phrase.4__________. Hyperlinks allow users to jump between diverse pages on the Web in no particular order. 5________, and scientists believe it bears a striking resemblance to the way the human brain accesses stored information. Hyperlinks make referencing information on the Web faster and easier than using most traditional printed documents.

Задание 5. Read the text again. Choose the best sentence from the list below to complete each gap.

a) From a small application, another name for a computer program.

b) The client’s browser usually differentiates between hyperlinks and ordinary text by making the hyperlinks a different color or by underlining

the hyperlinks.

c) They can be ordinary personal computers, powerful mainframe computers, or anywhere in the range between the two.

d) These are essentially Web sites containing searchable data base of

Uniform Resource Locators (URLs).

e) A hardware device that translates information from the computer into signals that can travel over telephone lines.

f) This method of accessing information is called associative access.

g) These will enable the user to type the desired word or by clicking

on the letters to form it in a utility window.

Задание 6.Choose the best answer to these questions according to the text.

1. How is the part of computer hardware, responsible for the best connection between client and server computers, called?

a) a modem,

b) a router,

c) an applet.

2. What does a Uniform Resource Locator (URL) stand for?

a) Web page address,

b) Web document,

c) Internet format.

3. What is the computer language, used in the creation of applets?

a) Ada,

b) C#,

c) Java.

4. What does the address of a Web document serve for?

a) It is used to name web documents.

b) It helps the client computer to find the server that holds the page.

c) It specifies certain directories and files.

5. What is the main function of hyperlinks in a client-server communication?

a) Hyperlinks substitute traditional printed documents.

b) Hyperlinks quicken the search of referencing information.

c) Hyperlinks allow users to jump between different pages on the Web in a strict order.

Задание 7.Here are some dictionary definitions of words from the text. Each word has more than one definition. Choose the definition that fits each of the words in the text best.

1. network

a) a group of broadcasting stations connected to transmit the same program simultaneously,

b) a chain of inter connected operations, computers, ect.

2. file

a) a collection of related data under a specific name,

b) a container for keeping papers in order.

3. code

a) a set of rules or conventions,

b) a set of program instructions.

4. protocol

a) the ceremonial etiquette accepted as correct in official dealings between heads of state or diplomatic officials,

b) the formatting of data in an electronic communications system.