TEXT 2 Synthesis of Nanomaterials by High Energy Ball Milling
It is a ball milling process where a powder mixture placed in the ball mill is subjected to high-energy collision from the balls. This process was developed by Benjamin and his coworkers at the International Nickel Company in the late of 1960. It was found that this method, termed mechanical alloying, could successfully produce fine, uniform dispersions of oxide particles (Al2O3, Y2O3, ThO2) in nickel-base superalloys that could not be made by more conventional powder metallurgy methods. Their innovation has changed the traditional method in which production of materials is carried out by high temperature synthesis. Besides materials synthesis, high-energy ball milling is a way of modifying the conditions in which chemical reactions usually take place either by changing the reactivity of as-milled solids (mechanical activation — increasing reaction rates, lowering reaction temperature of the ground powders)—or by inducing chemical reactions during milling (mechanochemistry). It is, furthermore, a way of inducing phase transformations in starting powders whose particles have all the same chemical composition: amorphization or polymorphic transformations of compounds, disordering of ordered alloys, etc.
The alloying process can be carried out using different apparatus, namely, attritor, planetary mill or a horizontal ball mill. However, the principles of these operations are same for all the techniques. Since the powders are cold welded and fractured during mechanical alloying, it is critical to establish a balance between the two processes in order to alloy successfully. Planetary ball mill is a most frequently used system for mechanical alloying since only a very small amount of powder is required. Therefore, the system is particularly suitable for research purpose in the laboratory. The ball mill system consists of one turn disc (turn table) and two or four bowls. The turn disc rotates in one direction while the bowls rotate in the opposite direction. The centrifugal forces, created by the rotation of the bowl around its own axis together with the rotation of the turn disc, are applied to the powder mixture and milling balls in the bowl. The powder mixture is fractured and cold welded under high energy impact.
The figure below shows the motions of the balls and the powder. Since the rotation directions of the bowl and turn disc are opposite, the centrifugal forces are alternately synchronized. Thus friction resulted from the hardened milling balls and the powder mixture being ground alternately rolling on the inner wall of the bowl and striking the opposite wall. The impact energy of the milling balls in the normal direction attains a value of up to 40 times higher than that due to gravitational acceleration. Hence, the planetary ball mill can be used for high-speed milling.
During the high-energy ball milling process, the powder particles are subjected to high energetic impact. Microstructurally, the mechanical alloying process can be divided into four stages: (a) initial stage, (b) intermediate stage, (c) final stage, and (d) completion stage.
(a) At the initial stage of ball milling, the powder particles are flattened by the compressive forces due to the collision of the balls. Micro-forging leads to changes in the shapes of individual particles, or cluster of particles being impacted repeatedly by the milling balls with high kinetic energy. However, such deformation of the powders shows no net change in mass.
(b) At the intermediate stage of the mechanical alloying process, significant changes occur in comparison with those in the initial stage. Cold welding is now significant. The intimate mixture of the powder constituents decreases the diffusion distance to the micrometer range. Fracturing and cold welding are the dominant milling processes at this stage. Although some dissolution may take place, the chemical composition of the alloyed powder is still not homogeneous.
(c) At the final stage of the mechanical alloying process, considerable refinement and reduction in particle size is evident. The microstructure of the particle also appears to be more homogenous in microscopic scale than those at the initial and intermediate stages. True alloys may have already been formed.
(d) At the completion stage of the mechanical alloying process, the powder particles possess an extremely deformed metastable structure. At this stage, the lamellae are no longer resolvable by optical microscopy. Further mechanical alloying beyond this stage cannot physically improve the dispersoid distribution. Real alloy with composition similar to the starting constituents is thus formed.
TASKS
1. Read the title of the passage to know what it deals with.
2. Read the passage carefully to know its content in more detail.
3. Name the paragraphs dealing with the initial stages of mechanical alloying.
4. Name the paragraphs that describe the intermediate stages of mechanical alloying.
5. Find the conclusive paragraph in which the dispersoid distribution cannot be physically improved.
6. Find the paragraph concerned with refinement and reduction in particle size.
7. Thoroughly read paragraph 1 and define its main point. Summarize paragraph 1 in no more than two sentences. Begin with: The paper reports on ...
8. Thoroughly read paragraphs 2, 3, 4 and condense their content. Compress paragraphs 2, 3 and 4 into a statement using the phrases: A careful account is given to... It is reported that... The paper claims that...
9. Thoroughly read paragraphs 5, 6 and condense their content. Compress paragraphs 5 and 6 into a statement using the phrases: Much attention is given to ... It is claimed that... The paper points out that...
10. Summarize the content of the passage using the phrases: The paper provides information on ... The paper defines the phenomenon of... An attempt is made to... The paper points out... The paper claims that...
UNIT VII SPECIAL TEXTS