Text 2. Development of Law
Law develops as society evolves. Historically, the simplest societies were tribal. The members of the tribe were bonded together initially by kinship and worship of the same gods. Even in the absence of courts and legislature there was law – a blend of customs, morality, religion, and magic. The visible authority was the ruler, or chief; the highest authorities were the gods whose will was revealed in the forces of nature and in the revelations of the tribal head or the priest. Wrongs against the tribe, such as sacrilege or breach of tribal customs, were met with group sanctions, and, the tribe members thought, with the wrath of the gods. People appeased the gods in ritualistic ceremonies ending perhaps in sacrifice or expulsion of the wrongdoer. Wrongs against individuals, such as murder, theft, adultery, or failure to repay a debt, were avenged by the family of the victim, often in actions against the family of the wrongdoer. Revenge of this kind was based on tribal custom, a major component of early law.
Tribal society gradually evolved into territorial confederations. Governmental structures emerged, and modern law began to take shape. The most significant historical example is Roman law, which influenced most of the legal systems of the world.
The common-law systems of England, and later of the U.S., developed in a different manner. Before the Norman Conquest (1066), England was a loose confederation of societies, the laws of which were largely tribal and local. The Anglo-Norman rules created a system of centralized courts that operated under a single set of laws. This legal system, known as the common law of England, began with common customs, but over time, it involved the courts in lawmaking (in response to changes in society).
I. Answer the questions.
1. By what were the members of the tribe bonded together?
2. What were the highest authorities during the tribal age?
3. What were possible wrongs against the tribe?
4. Which legal system influenced the law of many countries?
5. When did the Norman Conquest of England happen?
II. Are these statements true or false according to the text?
1. Tribesmen were bonded together by constitution.
2. The simplest societies were based on slavery.
3. Vengeance was often used in primitive societies.
4. In 1066 England was invaded by Saxons.
5. The legal system of the USA developed on the English basis.
III. Insert the proper word into the following sentences and explain its meaning with the help of the dictionary.
1. Law develops as … evolves.
2. … was a blend of customs, morality, religion, and magic.
3. Wrongs against the tribe were met with group … .
4. … was based on tribal custom.
5. The common-law … of England developed in a different manner.
IV. Find a proper definition for the following words.
| 1) law | a) a set of things working together |
| 2) tribe | b) the system of rules which a particular country or community recognizes as regulating the actions of its members |
| 3) system | c)the action or crime of stealing |
| 4) conquest | d) a social division in a traditional society consisting of families |
| 5) theft | e) the act or an instance of conquering or the state of having been conquered |
V. Put the verb into the correct tense form.
1. The first law systems (to develop) long ago.
2. Kinship (to bond) together the members of the primitive societies.
3. England (to be conquered) by Normans in 1066.
4. Most modern legal systems (to be influenced) by Roman law.
5. The common law of England (to begin) to develop after the Norman Conquest.
VI. Give a short summary of the text in English.
VII. Retell the text.
Essential vocabulary
| awareness | обізнаність, інформованість |
| barrister | адвокат, баррістер |
| competition | конкуренція |
| deal with | мати справу з |
| demand | вимагати, потребувати |
| inescapable | неминучий |
| investigator | слідчий |
| judge | суддя |
| lawyer | юрист, адвокат |
| legal | правовий |
| notary | нотаріус |
| prosecutor | прокурор |
| skills | вміння, навички |
| solicitor | солісітор, адвокат |
| succeed | мати успіх |
Text 3. Legal Profession
The legal profession is changing and responding positively to the outside world. The future demands greater professional responsibility and self-management skills to succeed. The better and informed future lawyers – judges, prosecutors, notaries, investigators in Ukraine, barristers and solicitors in the United Kingdom – are, the more aware they are of their strengths and ambitions, the more they will be able to manage future career opportunities.
The legal profession is driven both by the changing needs of the client and by government policy and new legislature frameworks. Lawyers need to ensure that services and standards are properly regulated, maintained and enhanced.
The legal profession is increasingly international – global economy, the EU influence different aspects of lives of a European lawyer. Many lawyers deal with international business and clients now. In the UK, it tends to be solicitors who work for international law firms, but barristers may also be representing international clients.
Increased competition is a growing aspect of the legal profession. Clients look for high-quality specialist services. Within the legal profession in the UK there is a healthy competition between solicitors and barristers.
Information technology is an inescapable fact of modern life. You can’t get away from IT – you ought to be, and need to be, computer literate. You have to depend on relevant IT solutions – the legal profession here is no exception. Expect to make good use of specialist software packages and other IT services for research and client support as part of your everyday job.
As a prospective lawyer you will need to consider your options carefully:
– where do I train – what is a best course and training opportunity for me?
– what branch of the profession and areas of law do I eventually want to practice in and what are the opportunities?
You should be starting to ask yourself these questions now. Remember that as well as academic excellence, employers place a premium on good communication and teamwork skills combined with professional awareness.
Юридичної професії змінюється і позитивно реагує на зовнішній світ. Майбутнє вимагає більшої професійної відповідальності та самоконтролю навичок, щоб досягти успіху. Чим краще поінформовані і майбутні юристи - судді, прокурори, нотаріуси, слідчі в Україні, адвокат і адвокати в Сполученому Королівстві, тим більше усвідомлюю, вони мають свої сильні і амбіції, тим більше вони зможуть управляти кар'єрні перспективи.
Професія юриста є забезпечено як за рахунок зміни потреб клієнта і відповідно з урядовою Політикою і нової законодавчої бази. Юристи потрібні для того, щоб послуги і стандарти толком не регулюються, підтримується і підвищується.
Професія юриста стає все більш міжнародний - Світова економіка, ЄС впливати на різні аспекти життя Європейського адвоката. Багато юристи займаються міжнародного бізнесу і клієнтів зараз. У Великобританії, як правило, це адвокати, які працюють для міжнародних юридичних фірм, адвокатів, але може також представляти міжнародних клієнтів.
Зростаюча конкуренція зростає аспект юридичної професії. Клієнтів шукати якісні послуги фахівців. В рамках юридичної професії у Великобританії існує здорова конкуренція між адвокати і адвокат.
Інформаційні технології-це незаперечний факт сучасного життя. Ви не можете піти від нього - ви повинні бути, і повинні бути, володіти комп'ютерною грамотністю. Ви повинні залежати від відповідних ІТ-рішень - юристів тут не виняток. Очікувати, щоб зробити гарне використання спеціалізованих пакетів програмного забезпечення та інших ІТ-послуг для проведення досліджень і підтримки клієнтів, як частина вашої повсякденної роботи.
Як майбутній адвокат вам потрібно буде розглянути ваші варіанти ретельно:
- де я тренуюся - що це кращий курс навчання і можливість для мене?
- які професії та сфери права чи зрештою я хочу в практиці і які можливості?
Ви повинні почати задавати собі ці питання зараз. Пам'ятайте, що як і в навчанні, роботодавці ставку на хороше спілкування і вміння працювати в команді в поєднанні з професійної обізнаності.
I. Answer the questions.
1. Why is the legal profession constantly changing?
2. What does the future demand from the lawyer?
3. What do the lawyers need to ensure?
4. Why is the legal profession called international?
5. What is the influence of the information technologies?
1. Чому юридичної професії постійно змінюється?
2. Яке майбутнє вимагати від адвоката?
3. Чим займаються юристи повинні забезпечити?
4. Чому юристів називається міжнародною?
5. Який вплив інформаційних технологій?
II. Are these statements true or false according to the text?
1. The legal profession always remains the same.
2. Barristers and solicitors can be found in Ukraine.
3. Services and standards should be properly regulated.
4. Competition is an important aspect of the legal profession.
5. The importance of the IT is rapidly increasing.
1. Професія юриста завжди залишається незмінним.
2. Адвокат і адвокати можна знайти в Україні.
3. Послуги і стандарти повинні бути правильно відрегульовані.
4. Конкуренція є важливим аспектом юридичної професії.
5. Значення її швидко зростає.