Ministry of education and science of the republic
Ф. 7.03-18
MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF THE REPUBLIC
OF KAZAKHSTAN
M. Auezov South Kazakhstan State University
Chair «Food engineering and food safety»
 |
Zheleuova Zh.,
CONSPECTUS OF LECTURE
On discipline «Commodity research of processing productions products»
Shymkent, 2014
MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN
M.Auezov South Kazakhstan State University
High School “Textiles and food engineering”
Chair: “Food engineering”
Zheleuova Zh.
CONSPECTUS OF LECTURE
on discipline «Commodity research of processing productions products»
for the students of a specialty 050728-Technology of processing production
The form of training: full time
Symkent – 2014
Lecture 1
Introduction. Purposes and the task of science of commodities.
Classification of food products. History and trend in
Development of science of commodities
Plan:
1. Purposes and the task of science of commodities.
Principles of science of commodities.
2. Classification of food products
3. History and trend in development of the science of commodities
Consumer – потребительский possess – обладает
Cost – стоимость the measure – величина
Capable – способность to satisfy – удовлетворять
Availability – пригодность designation – назначение
The environment – внешняя среда preservation – сохранение
Regularity – закономерность mince – грибы
Signs – признак grocery – бакалейный
Vinegar – уксус wurst – колбаса
Bloated – копченый cattle breeding – животноводство
Wholesale – оптовый government – правительство
Purposes and the task of science of commodities.
Control questions
1. Name the basic tasks of science of commodities.
2. According to what classification are subdivided food goods?
3. Give the determination of the assortment of industrial and commercial.
4. Name the basic directions of science of commodities.
Lecture 2
The chemical composition of food goods
Plan
1. Inorganic substances.
2. Organic substances.
3. Other substances of the foodstuffs.
Restoration – восстановление cloths – ткани
Ash – зольный maintenance – поддержание
Sensitive – чувствителен indisposition – недомогание
Connected - связанная significantly – существенно
Perishable - скоропортящийся favorable – благоприятный
Medium – среда undergo - подвергаются
Damage – порча putrefaction – гниение
Posting – стойкие exponent – показатель
Wurst – колбаса drinking – питьевая
Aftertastes – привкус moderate – умеренный
Combustion – сгорание digestive – пищеварительный
Deficiency – недостаток illnesses – болезнь
Muscle – мышцы blood – кровь
Thyroid gland – щитовидная железа bones – кость
Poisonous – ядовитый dangerous – опасный
Safety – защитный superfluity – избыток
Deposit – отложение grape – виноградный
ferment – сбраживаются yeast – дрожжи
sour – квашенный beet bin – свекловичный
Reed – тростниковый malt – солодовый
Accumulate – накапливаться bulbs – клубни
The roots – корни the stems – стебли
Herb – злак splinter - расщепляться
Liver – печень ageing – созревание
Slaughter – убой girasol – топинамбур
Integumentary – покровный bowels – кишечник
Movement – передвижение volatile – летучи
Irritate – раздражающий mucous – слизистый
Long before – в присутствии harmful – вредные
Pork – свинина roe – икра
The growth – рост adult – взрослый
Disorders – расстройства irreplaceable – незаменимые
Full – полноценный inferior – неполноценный
Millet – просо expedient – целесообразно
Sinew – сухожилие nail – ногти
Acescence – скисание intumescense - набухание
For maintaining the normal vital activity of the organism of human, compensation of his power expenditures and the restoration of cloths are necessary the nutrients. They enter the human organism together with the food, which is for it the energy source, by construction (plastic) material they participate in the regulation of the processes of exchange of substances. The chemical composition of products is diverse and depends on the chemical composition of source material, technological regime and method of production, conditions of storage and transportation and other factors.
Inorganic and organic matters enter into the composition of food goods. To the inorganic substances include the water and mineral (ash) connections; to the organic - carbohydrates, fats, ferments, vitamins, organic acids, which color, aromatic and other.
- Inorganic substances
Water has important significance for the human organism, since it is the component part of its cells and cloths and it is necessary for the realization of biochemical processes. It plays important role in the maintenance of a constant temperature of body. To adult person it is necessary in average 1750-2200 g of water in a 24 hour period. This need is covered, first of all, due to the drinking water and the food. Living organism is very sensitive to a deficiency in the water: severe indisposition is experienced with loss by 10% of moisture of men, while death begins with loss by 20%.
Water is located in all products, but in different quantities: in the sugar - 0,14%; in the flour - 12-14; in the bread - 40-50; in the meat, the fish - 65-80; in the vegetables, fruits -65-95%, and etc.
They conditionally divide into the free and connected the water, which is contained in the foodstuffs. It significantly influences the nourishing value, the fitness for the storage, the taste, the consistency of products. The products, which contain a large quantity of free water, relate to those being perishable, since it is favorable medium for the microorganisms and products rapidly undergo damage (putrefaction, molding, fermentation). On the contrary, the products, in which it is small water, are more posting in the storage. At the same time the products, rich in moisture, have the low energy value (although their biological value can be high). Each product must contain water in the specific quantities, what provided in many standards is one of the basic qualitative exponents. Depending on the special features of products themselves, and also conditions of environment they can lose moisture or, on the contrary, be moistened. The high hygroscopic (ability to absorb moisture) possesses sugar, salt, flour, dry fruits and vegetables, caramel and other products. The decrease of moisture in the fresh fruits, the vegetables, the boiled wurst, the meat, the fish and others during the storage leads to lowering in the quality and commodity losses.
The definite requirements are presented to the drinking water. It must be clean, transparent, colorless, without the smell, outside aftertastes and harmful microorganisms, the moderate hardness or soft.
Mineral substances are otherwise called ash elements, since after the combustion of product they remain in the form ashes. Ash elements have great significance for the vital activity of the human organism: they enter into the composition of cloths, they participate in the exchange of substances, in the formation of ferments, hormones, digestive juices. Deficiency or absence of separate elements in the organism leads to the severe illnesses. To the human organism be required in a 24 hour period 20-30 g of ash elements.
Depending on the content in the products ash elements divide into macro cells (calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, potassium, sodium, iron, magnesium, chlorine and others) and the micro cells (iodine, copper, aluminum, zinc, cobalt, manganese, fluorine and other). Are separated also ultra-micro cells (radium, thorium, mercury and others). Each of the mineral substances plays the leading role in the vital activity of organism. For example, phosphorus participates in the respiration, it is necessary for the normal activity of nervous system and work of muscles; potassium contributes to isolation from the organism of water and salts of sodium; iron participates in the formation of hemoglobin of the blood; iodine ensures the normal activity of the thyroid gland; manganese and fluorine contribute to the formation of the bones and etc.
Some elements are necessary for the organism in very small quantities (copper, lead, zinc, tin and others) and with their content in significant quantities become poisonous and dangerous for the life. The especially large danger in this respect presents the conserve foodstuffs, processed in the copper equipment and which were being stored in the hermetically sealed metallic banks for a long time. Therefore the content of copper, zinc, tin strictly is limited in food products, but the presence of salts of mercury, lead, and arsenic is not allowed.
The sources of mineral elements are products of plant and animal origin, and also drinking water. Are especially rich in mineral salts the vegetables, the fruits, grain flour, the products of sea and others.
Ash content is the qualitative index with the determination of the type of flour, starch, and also is characterized the value of the surface finish of product (sugar, cocoa- powder).
- Organic substances
Carbohydrates are contained in essence in the products of plant origin. They play the leading role in the plastic processes and the functional activity of individual organs, the exchange of substances and the safety reactions of organism. On the average to adult person be required in a 24 hour period 400-500 g of carbohydrates. With the deficiency in the food ration of carbohydrates to the production of energy in the organism is expended more than protein, and the superfluity of carbohydrates leads to formation and deposit into the bones person of fat. With the oxidation of 1g of the available carbohydrates in the organism it is allocate by 3, 75 kcal (15, 7 kJ) of energy.
Carbohydrates divide into the monosaccharide (simple of sugar), oligosaccharides (complex of sugar) and polysaccharides (not sugar alike).
Monosaccharide (glucose - grape sugar; fructose - fruit sugar). They sweet, are dissolved well in the water, are easily mastered by the human organism, easily they ferment by yeast(s), by the lactic acid bacteria (these properties they are used with the production of alcohol, faults, grain crops, sour fruits and vegetables, sour-milk products).
Oligosaccharides (saccharine - beet bin or reed sugar; maltose – malt sugar; lactose - milk sugar). They all in the process of exchange of substances are converted into the monosaccharide. They, as the monosaccharide, sweet, are dissolved well in the water, they are easily mastered by the human organism; under the action of the ferments of the digestive tract easily they will be hydrolyzed, and in the industry this property is used with obtaining of artificial honey; with the heating they are caramelized (they are formed the dark-colored substances); are crystallized, i. e. they are sugared (during the storage of jam, candies, caramel, honey).
Polysaccharides (starch, glycogen, inulin, cellulose tissue and other) do not possess sweet taste; therefore they are called not sugar alike carbohydrates.
Starch is accumulated in the form grains of the characteristic of form and size in the bulbs, the roots, the stems, the seeds of plants. Is most rich in starch of grain of herbs, potatoes, flour, and bread. In the water the starch is not dissolved, while in the hot - it will swell and paste is formed. Under the action of ferments, acids the starch is splinter to the glucose and is mastered well by the human organism.
Glycogen (animal starch) performs the role of reserve nutrient in the organism; it is formed from the glucose. It is contained in the liver, the meat, and the fish. Glycogen participates in the fermentative processes during ageing of meat after the slaughter of animal.
Inulin is encountered in the plants more thinly frequently than starch. It is located in the roots of chicory, the tubers of girasol and others.
Cellular tissue (cellulose) enters into the composition of the integument cloths of plants, composing the basis of cellular walls. It is barely mastered by the human organism because of the absence of ferments for its splitting to the glucose; however, it strengthens the peristalsis of bowels, the secretion of gastric juice and contributes to the movement of food. The high content of cellulose tissue in the product reduces its nourishing value and comprehensibility.
Fats - these are the esters of triatomic alcohol of glycerin and different fatty acids. In the organism the fats participate in the exchange of substances, the synthesis of proteins, the formation of cloths, serve as the source of the fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K), are the source of energy (with the oxidation 1 g of fat it is allotted by 9,3 kcal. The daily need for the fats on the average is 80-100 g.
By the origin distinguish fats plant, animals, combined; depending on consistency and those and, etc are liquid and solid.
Fats have a number of general properties. They more easily water; they are dissolved in the organic solvents (gasoline, acetone, ether); with the water the fats in the presence of weak alkalis, proteins or other colloids can form emulsions, i. e. to be distributed in the water in the form of the smallest balls (in the milk), or vice versa, the smallest droplets of water. They distribute in the fat (in the margarine, the mayonnaise); fats are non-volatile, but with the strong heating (240-250°С) they are decomposed with the formation of the substances, which have unpleasant smell and which irritate the mucous membrane of eyes. During the storage in air (long before of light, oxygen, heat) the fats are oxidized, which leads to rancidification and salting, reduction in the quality of products and formation of aldehydes, ketones and other harmful for the organism substances.
Fats are contained in many foodstuffs, but in different quantities. There are many fats in oil, fat, margarine, pork, nuts and others. It is very small fat in the majority of fruits, vegetables, in some forms of fishes (pike, pike-perch, codfish) and others.
Oily substances enter besides fats into the composition of foodstuffs. The greatest value has a lecithin (in the sour cream, the cream, butter, eggs, liver, roe and others). It contributes to the correct exchange of fats in the organism, detains the development of atherosclerosis, and prevents the deposit of fat in the liver.
Proteins - chief constituent of the food. Without them cannot exist not one living cell. They are necessary for constructing the cloths of body and restoration of the dying off cells, formation of ferments, vitamins, hormones and immune bodies; as the construction, plastic and energy material (1g of protein gives 4,1 kcal (16,7 kJ). Not prosperity of protein in the nourishment leads to the delay of the growth of children and to a whole series of heavy disorders in the organism of adult. The daily need of adult person for the proteins is 80-100 g, including half they must compose animal proteins.
Proteins consist of amino acids. Some amino acids are synthesized in the organism, but there are nine amino acids, which in the organism cannot be synthesized, they are irreplaceable. The proteins, into which enter all irreplaceable amino acids, are called full (proteins of meat, fish, eggs, milk). The proteins, which do not contain of at least one irreplaceable amino acid, carry to the inferior (proteins of millet, corn and others). Therefore for the satisfaction of the needs of organism for the amino acids it is necessary to use different combinations of products. Thus, the proteins of grain flour goods it is expedient to combine with the proteins of milk, meat, and fish.
In composition proteins divide into the simple (proteins) and the complex (proteids). The simple proteins include: albumen, globulins, glutelin, prolamine; to the complex - phosphoproteins, chromium proteins, the glucoproteids.
In the organism of animals, plants and food products the proteins are located in the liquid state (milk, the blood), semi-fluid (egg) and solid (sinew, hair, nails).
Proteins have a number of the general properties: with heating higher than 50-60°C they are denatured (with the melting of eggs, obtaining of cheese and sour-milk products it is formed cluster); almost all proteins will swell in the water and increase in the volume (with the production of bread, the melting of macaroni articles, croup); under the action of ferments, acids, alkalis - they will be hydrolyzed (during ripening of cheeses; to the damage of meat, fish).
Ferments - this of the substance of protein nature, the accelerating chemical reactions, which flow in the living organism. Otherwise they call them biocatalysts. There is not one process of vital activity, which would manage without the participation of various ferments. Ferments are manufactured only by living cells of plants, animals, microorganisms, but they manifest their action both in the cell and outside it.
Ferments have exceptionally important significance in the nourishment of man. Over-boiling and mastering proteins, fats, carbohydrates flow with the participation of the ferments, isolated by the cells of organism. Ferments play large role in the production of many food goods (grain crops, beer, tea, sour fruits and of vegetables, sour-milk products, cheese and other). In the industry different fermentation preparations widely are used. For shortening of the duration of the processes of production and improvement in the quality of products. In the process of storage the ferments can have both a positive and negative effect on quality. The positive action of ferments is manifested, for example, during the ripening of fruits and vegetables, ripening of meat and fish, storing of flour, cheese and other goods. In certain cases ferments can cause worsening in the quality or spoiling of foodstuffs (acescence milk, the rancidification of fats, the germination of grain, the appearance of sweet taste in the potatoes, damage of meat, fish and i.e.).
Ferments possess the properties of protein substances; they undergo, intumescense denaturing and other changes under the effect of the chemical and physical actions. The characteristic properties of ferments are: specificity (each ferment acts only on the specific substance, for example, ferment saccharine it splits only saccharine; lactase - lactose); sensitivity to a change in the temperature - most favorable 30-50°[S] (with the heating to 70-80°[S] and above ferments they are destroyed, and at a minus temperature they remain, but activity sharply it is lowered). An increase in the humidity of product strengthens the action of ferments, their activity slows down during the desiccation; some ferments act only in the acid medium, others - in the neutral, some manifest activity in the alkaline medium.
Vitamins. They are irreplaceable in the nourishment of man, they contribute to normal exchange of substances, to increase in the organism, and they increase its resistibility to the diseases. With the long absence of vitamins in the food appear severe illnesses - avitaminoses, with their deficiency - hypovitaminoses, their excess entering into the organism it leads to hypervitaminosis. The majorities of vitamins designate by the letters of Latin alphabet, but are established also the designations of vitamins by their chemical composition; All vitamins conditionally divide into the fat-soluble (A, D, E, [k]), water-soluble ([s], R, [RR], group in others) and vitamin alike substances.
A deficiency in the vitamin A (retinol) in the organism leads to the delay of increase, the diseases of eyes, reduction in the resistibility of organism to infections. Vitamin A is encountered in the products of animal origin (liver cracks, butter, egg yolk and other). In the plant food it is found in the form carotene, which under the action of ferments is converted in the organism into the vitamin a. There is much carotene in the carrot, the apricots, the pumpkin and others; it is better mastered by organism together with the fats.
Vitamin D (calcipherol) regulates mastering calcium and phosphorus by organism. It is contained in the products of animal origin (fish oil, butter, the liver of animals, the yolk of chicken eggs). It has provitamins, which under the action of solar rays can be converted in the human organism into the vitamins D2, D3.
Vitamin E (tocopherol) is called the factor of multiplication. Are rich in it sea-buckthorn, maize, soybean oil, embryos of wheat, barley, rye and others
Vitamin K (phylloquinone) plays important role in the processes of coagulation of the blood. Much it in the cabbage, the pumpkin, nettle and others
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) increases the resistibility of organism to infectious diseases, actively it participates in the synthesis of many substances, which are expended on the construction of bone and connective tissue, it protects from the disease by scurvy. The basic source of vitamin C is fruits, vegetables (black currant, cabbage, citrus fruits and other). Vitamin C is unstable; easily it is destroyed with the access of oxygen, the heating. During the fermentation, the freezing it remains comparatively well.
The vitamin B1 (thiamine) actively participates in the fermentative processes, the exchange of substances. Its absence in the food leads to the disease of nervous system, are rich in the vitamin B1 dry brewing yeasts, pea, pork, bread from the wallpaper flour.
The vitamin B1 (riboflavin) contributes to an increase in the organism; it participates in the carbohydrate exchange of substances, the oxidation-reduction processes, is contained in the same products as the vitamin B1.
- Other substances of the foodstuffs.
Besides the base materials examined the foodstuffs contain organic acids, essential oils, glycosides, alkaloids, tanning, coloring substances, bactericides, extractive, pectin substances.
Organic acids are contained in the fruits and the vegetables in the Free State, and also they are formed in the process of their processing (with the fermentation). K. by them carries acetous, milk, lemon, apple, benzoic and other acids. A small quantity of acids, which are contained in the food, renders the exciting action on the digestive glands and it contributes to the best mastering of substances. Besides the gustatory organic acids have the canning value. Therefore the sour and rickle products, cranberry and mountain cranberry, that contain the increased quantity of acids, remain well. Acidity is the important index of quality of many food products. The day need of adult person for the acids is 2 g.
Essential oils cause the aroma of foodstuffs. Their total quantity for the majority of products is determined by the portions of percentage. The aroma of foodstuffs is the important qualitative index. The pleasant aroma of food tempts appetite and improves its mastering. The property of aromatic substances is easy to evaporate necessary to consider during the culinary working and storing some foodstuffs (spices, tea, and coffee). With the spoiling of products appear the unpleasant smells, caused by the formation of such substances as hydrogen sulfide ammonia, indole, skatole and other
Glycosides - derivatives of carbohydrates, which are contained in the fruits and the vegetables (solanin, sinigrin, amygdalin and other). They possess sharp smell and bitter taste, at the small doses they excite appetite, in the large - they are poisons for the organism.
Alkaloids - substance, stir upping acting on the nervous system, at the large doses are poisons. They are contained in the tea, the coffee (caffeine), the chocolate (theobromine), are the nitrogenous organic bodies.
Tanning substances give the specific binding taste to the foodstuffs (tea, coffee, some fruits). Under the action of atmospheric oxygen they are oxidized and acquire dark painting. By this are explained the dark color of tea, the darkening of in air cut apples and T. d.
The coloring substances cause the color of foodstuffs. To them carry the chlorophyll, the carotenoids, [flavonovye] pigments, anthocyan, chromoproteins and others
Chlorophyll - green pigment, which is found in the fruits and the vegetables. It is dissolved well in the fats, with the heating in the acid medium it is converted into the pheophytin - the substance of brown painting (with the melting of fruits and vegetables).
Carotenoids - pigments, which impart to products yellow, orange and red painting. To them carry the carotene, the lycopene, xanthophyll and others Carotene is found in the carrot, the apricots, the citrus fruits, the lettuce, the spinach and others; lycopene gives red color to tomatoes; xanthophyll tinctures products into the yellow colored.
Anthocyan - pigments of different painting. Painting is given to the skin of grapes, cherries, mountain cranberry; they are contained in beet and others
Chromoproteins - pigments, which cause the red painting of the blood, meat.
Bactericides possess bactericidal properties, are contained in an onion, the garlic, the horseradish.
Extractive substances are contained in the meat, to fish are given smell and aroma to bouillon.
Pectin substances are contained in the fruits, the berries, the vegetables and possess the ability to form jellies in the presence of sugar and acid. This property widely is used in the confectionery industry with the production of jelly-candy, pastille, jam, jelly and others.
Control questions
1. What organic and inorganic matter does enter into the composition of food goods?
2. What there is a connection between the humidity, the food nourishment value and the safety of products?
3. What value does have mineral substances for the human organism?
4. What foodstuffs do consist almost completely of carbohydrates?
5. What reasons do cause the damage of fat?
6. What value does have proteins for the human organism?
7. What difference between the full and inferior proteins?
8. What value does have vitamins in the nourishment?
9. What role does play ferments in the processes of the vital activity of the human organism?
10. What substances do relate to other and their value for food products?
Lecture 3
Plan
1. Quality of the goods
2. Methods of determining the quality of the goods
Preferences – предпочтение competitive – конкурентный
Reflectivity – отражательная способность reliability – надежность
Appearance – внешний вид rough - грубый
Dim painting – тусклая окраска age - возраст
Comprehensibility – усвояемость custom – привычка
Absence – отсутствие poisonous – ядовитый
Repair – устранимые dangerous – опасные
Annihilate – уничтожены arrange – наладить
Tax assessment – налогообложение sensation – ощущение
Olfactory – обоняние drink - напитки
Conceive – воспринимаемые usable - пригодные
Perishable - скоропортящиеся rumor – слух
Touch – осязание accuracy – точность
Authenticity – достоверность Merits – достоинство
Cheap - дешевый drawback - недостаток
Accompanying - сопроводительные shine – блеск
Impression – впечатление juiciness – сочность
Smoothness – гладкость collapse – осадок
Mud – муть slime – слизь
Evaporation – испарение rub – растирание
Palm – ладонь needle – игла
Extract – извлечение touch – прикосновение
Indicating – указательный digitally – пальцы
Effort – усилие pricking – прокалывание
Blotting - размазывание Stuffing – фарш
Pie – паштет frozen – мороженый
Dough – тесто insufficiently – степень
Crushing – измельчение tenderness – нежность
Mealiness – рассыпчатость sand – песок
Saliva – слюна astringent – вяжущий
Sharp – острый tart – терпкий
Burning – жгучий Sonic – звуковой
Ripeness – зрелость watermelon – арбуз
Innocence- безвредность expenditures - затраты
Quality of the goods
The quality of goods is one of the basic characteristics, which render the decisive influence on the creation of consumer preferences and the formation of competitive ability. By quality of foodstuffs is understood the totality of the properties, the reflectivity of product to provide organoleptic characteristics, demand of organism for the food substances, its safety for the health, reliability during the production and the storage. By the basic properties of food goods, which determine their usefulness and ability to satisfy the need of man for the nourishment, appear food nourishment value, physical and gustatory properties and his storability.
Food nourishment value - these are the complex property, which characterizes full weight of the useful properties of product, i. e. energy, biological, physiological, organoleptic value, comprehensibility, high quality.
The energy value of products is determined by the content in them of fats, proteins, carbohydrates. The energy value of food products is expressed in the kilojoules (kJ) or in the kilocalories (kcal) in 100g. It is established that with the oxidation in the organism of the human 1 g of fat to 9, 3 kcal (37, 7 kJ) of energy are allotted; 1 g of proteins - 4, 1 kcal (16, 7 kJ); carbohydrates - 3, 75 kcal (15, 7 kJ). The specific quantity of energy obtains also organism with the oxidation of organic acids and alcohol. Knowing the chemical composition of product, it is possible to calculate its energy value.
For example. In the cheese Dutch it is contained (in %): protein - 23, 5; fat - 30, 9; carbohydrates - 0.2. The energy value of 100 g of cheese will be equal: (23, 5 x 4, 1 kcal) + + (30, 9 X of 9, 3 kcal) + (0.2 X of 3, 75 kcal) = 384, 47 kcal.
But the human organism even with the very favorable conditions uses not all substances, which form part of food, since they have the different degree of comprehensibility.
Biological value is characterized by the presence in products of the biologically active materials: irreplaceable amino acids, the vitamins, macro- and micro cells, the irreplaceable polyunsaturated fatty acids. These components are not synthesized by the fermentation systems of organism and therefore they cannot be substituted with other food substances. They are called irreplaceable and must enter organism with the food (meat, fish, dairy products and others).
Physiological value is determined by the ability of food products to influence the resistibility of his organism to diseases the digestive, nervous, cardiovascular systems of man and. Physiological value possess, for example, tea, coffee, spices, lactic acid and other products.
The qualitative indexes cause the organoleptic value of foodstuffs: appearance, consistency, smell, taste, composition, the degree of freshness. They increase appetite and are better mastered the optimum in appearance foodstuffs: usually the fresh or little stored fruits, dietetic eggs, living fish, bread bakery articles made of the high-quality raw material, since in them it is more than biologically active materials. Taste and aroma of foodstuffs have such great significance, that in certain cases for their reaching use the methods of working (for example, the smoking of fish and sausage articles), which cause even a certain reduction in the comprehensibility of protein substances. The products, which have dim painting, irregular shape, uneven surface and superfluously soft or rough consistency, more badly are mastered; those containing are less than biologically active materials; with the low food nourishment value. Products with the defects of exterior view and consistency frequently contain the substances, harmful for the human organism.
The comprehensibility of foodstuffs is expressed by the coefficient of digestibility, which shows, what part of the product as a whole is used by an organism. Comprehensibility depends on the exterior view, the consistency, the taste of product, quality and quantity of food substances, which are contained in it, and also on age, health of man, conditions of nourishment, custom, tastes and other factors. With the mixed nourishment the comprehensibility of proteins composes 84, 5%, fats - 94, carbohydrates - 95, 6%.
The high quality of foodstuffs is characterized by the organoleptic and, chemical indices (color, taste, smell, consistency, exterior view, chemical composition), by the absence of toxins (poisonous substances), pathogenic microbes (Salmonella, botulinus and others), harmful connection (mercury, lead), the seeds of poisonous plants and impurities (metal, glass). On the high quality food products are subdivided into the classes; the goods, usable to the use according to the designation (they be subject to realization without any limitations); the goods, conditionally suitable for the use according to the designation (nonstandard goods or marriage with the repair defects); the dangerous goods, unfit to the use according to the designation (they do not be subject to realization but they must be annihilate or utilized with the observance of the specific rules).
The goods, suitable to the use according to the designation, can be competitive on the market and ensure confidence in the success of their activity to their producers. In the transition period many enterprises still cannot arrange the release of the competitive product, and the basic reasons for this position are the low level of the technical equipment of enterprises, the insufficient professional training of workers, the financial difficulties, connect with the rigid system of tax assessment, and other.
Physical properties are considered with the estimation of the quality of goods, the determination of periods and conditions for storage.
The physical properties include the form, size, mass, color, transparency, density, viscosity, strength and other Their values depend on the chemical composition of products, their structure, biological special features, conditions of the storage, transportation. The indexes of physical properties have a value during the estimation of the quality of food goods. They are considered with the selection of the form of packing and container, conditions and methods of the transportation of storage.
The gustatory properties of foodstuffs are composed from the sensation of taste and olfactory sensations - smells. Four forms of the taste are distinguished: sweet (sugar), salt (salt), acid (vinegar), bitter (glycosides alkaloids). Smell - sensations, conceive by olfactory organs. Smell is important index with the determination of the quality of faults, drinks, where the aroma is manifested in the form the bouquet of sensations.
Storability - property of goods to preserve consumer qualities during the specific time interval (with the observance of the specified conditions), established by standard or another normative document.
Depending on storability all food goods divide into those being perishable (meat, fish, milk and other); usable for the prolonged storage (flour, grits, sugar, jar canned foods and other).
Lecture 4
Storage of goods
Plan
1. The storage
2. Processes are the proceeding during the storage
3. Losses of food goods.
The storage
Storage - stage of the commodity circulation, beginning from the release of finished production to the consumption or the utilization.
Basic task during the storage - to preserve goods without the losses of quality and quantity with the minimum labor inputs and supplies. The creation of the reserves of consumer goods is the inadvisable, but forced stay of finished production in the sphere of rotation. This phenomenon is caused by the need of the realization of the continuity of the process of production, constant guarantee of people with all required for the life products of consumption and formation of reserves. At the same time the volume of commodity reserves and its assortment structure must be located in accordance with volume and structure of buyer demand. Correct planning and rate setting commodity reserves ensures the uninterrupted supply of users, it prevents the formation of superfluous above-norm reserves, it contributes to the acceleration of turnover, to reduction in the losses of goods.
At present questions of storage acquire greatest economic importance, especially these concerns food goods. This problem is solved unequally for the different goods, since each of them requires during the storage the specific regime, which depends on its composition, properties and the intensity of the taking place in it processes.
Losses of food goods
With the storage, the transportation and the realization appear the quantitative losses of goods, which are subdivided into those normalized and protocol led. To the normalized losses carry the natural loss of mass and the before realization withdrawals, which are formed with the preparation of goods for sale (cleaning of sausage, fish, of butter; the formation of crumb with sale refined sugar, confectionery articles and other). Here carry the losses, which are formed over the standards of the natural loss of goods in the food stores of self-service. Natural loss - this of the loss of the mass of goods, that appears for the natural reasons. Its basic reasons are shrinkage (scattering), leakage and other The size of the natural loss of products influence the physical chemistry properties of goods, periods and conditions for storage, the form of packing, climatic conditions and the seasons. For reduction in the losses it is necessary to exercise thorough control over the quality of the goods entering, to observe the proper regime of storage, to enlarge sale of the package goods.
The actual sizes of natural loss are determined after the removal of remainders (inventory). They compare the revealed deficiency in the goods with the affirmed standards of natural loss. To natural loss do not relate the withdrawals from the cleaning of the upper layer of butter; the withdrawals, which are formed with the preparation for sale of sausages (string, the ends of the shells), beaten of poultry (paper), and also of meat bloated and the fish goods, sold after working-out (the skin of hams, the bone), and other These losses are normalized separately. The losses of goods - scrap, battle, which arose as a result of a careless attitude, also do not relate to the natural they diminished and they are copied due to the guilty persons. The writing off of lack can be produced only after the inventory of goods. The order of the writing off of lack, embezzlements and losses from the spoiling of values is regulated by legislation and constitutive documents of enterprise.
Control questions
1. What they do understand under the term “storage”?
2. What processes do occur during the storage?
3. Call you the possible losses of goods.
4. Call you the forms of natural loss.
5. How and when is produced the writing off of natural loss?
Lecture 5
Plan
1. Standardization
2. Purposes of standardization
3. Intergovernmental system of standardization
4. International and regional standardization
Establishment - установление voluntary – добровольный
Achievement – достижение ordering – упорядочение
The reliable – надежный sphere – сфера
Introduction – внедрение supervision – надзор
Lean – опирается educe – выявляет
Appearance – возникновение guarantee – обеспечение
Compatibility – совместимость transposability – взаимозаменяемость
Salesmen – продавец low-waste – малоотходный
Connection –связь defense – оборона
Protection – охрана environment - окружение
Surroundings – среда Agreement – соглашение
Acknowledged – признаны corotation – совместное
Acknowledgement – признание kept – сохранены
Promote – способствует advance – продвижение
Successful – успешное obvious – очевидный
Collaboration – сотрудничество agreement - согласование
Standardization
Standardization - activity in the establishment of rules and characteristics for purposes of their voluntary repeated use, directed toward the achievement of ordering in the spheres of production and rotation of production and an increase in the competitive ability of production, works or services.
The result of the activity of standardization is the normative document, whose application is the method of ordering in the specific region.
Normative document - document, which establishes rules, general principles or characteristics, which are concerned different forms of activity or their results. This term covers such concepts as standards and other normative documents on the standardization - rule, the recommendation, the codes of established practice, the all-Russian classifiers.
Standard - document, in which for purposes of voluntary repeated use are established the characteristics of production, rule of realization and characteristic of the processes of production, operation, storage, transportation, realization and utilization, fulfilling of works or rendering of services. Standard also can contain requirements for the terminology, the symbolism, the packing, the marking or the labels and the rules of their putting.
In the translation from the English the word “standard” indicates model, standard, basis. Standards are based on the generalized results of science, technology, practical experience and must be the reliable guarantee of the quality of the goods, which enter the internal and outside markets.
Depending on sphere of influence the standards of different status or category are distinguished: international standard, regional standard, national standard (previous name - state standard of the Russian Federation (ALL-UNION STATE STAN. R)), intergovernmental standard (ALL-UNION STATE STAN.), the standard of organization.
Standardization must be examined in three aspects: as practical activity as the part of control system and as science. Standardization as practical activity consists in the development, the introduction and the application of normative documents and the supervision of the fulfillment of requirements, rules and regulations, presented in them. Standardization as the component part of control leans on the complex of the basic documents in the region of technical policy and management of the quality of production. Standardization as science educe, generalizes and analyzes the regularities, which influence one or the other quality changes of goods, it develops and it bases standards and requirements for the objects of standardization.
Purposes of standardization
The critical goals of standardization are:
- raising safety level of life or of health of citizens, property of physical or legal persons, state or municipal property, ecological safety, safety of life or health of animals and plants and assistance to the observance of the requirements of technical regulations;
- raising safety level of objects taking into account the risk of the appearance of the extraordinary situations of natural and technogenic nature;
- the guarantee of scientific and technical progress;
- an increase in the competitive ability of production, works, services;
- the economical utilization of resources;
- technical and information compatibility;
- the comparability of the results of studies (tests) and of measurements, technical and economical - statistical data;
- the transposability of production.
The basic tasks of standardization are:
- the guarantee of mutual understanding between the developers, the producers, the salesmen and the users (customers);
- the establishment of optimum requirements for nomenclature and quality of production in the interests of user and state, including ensuring its safety for the environment, life, health and property;
- the establishment of requirements on the compatibility, and also the interchangeability of production;
- agreement and the coordination of indices and characteristics of production, its elements, component product, raw material and materials;
- unification on the basis of establishment and application of parametric and standard-size numbers, base constructions, structural- standardized modular component parts of the articles;
- the establishment of metrological standards, rules, positions and requirements;
- the technical-normative guarantee of control (tests, analysis, measurements), of certification and estimation of the quality of production;
- the establishment of requirements for the technological processes, including for purposes of reduction in the material consumption, energy content and labor expense, guarantee of application of low-waste technologies;
- creation and conducting the systems of classification and coding of technical and economic information;
- the normative guarantee of intergovernmental and state social and economic and scientific and technical programs (projects) and infrastructural complexes (transport, connection, defense, protection of the surrounding media, monitoring surroundings environment, safety of population and i.t.);
- the creation of cataloging system for guaranteeing the users with information about the nomenclature and the basic indices of production;
- assistance to the realization of the legislation of the Russian Federation by methods and by the means of standardization.
Control questions
1. What such is standardization?
2. Purposes and the task of standardization.
3. Name the forms of standards.
4. Distinctive special features of technical specifications.
5. Purpose of international collaboration in the region of standardization.
The lecture 6
Bases of certification
Plan
1. Certification as the confirmation of the correspondence
2. Bases of certification
Right – право correspondence - соответствие
Oblique – косвенный confirmation – подтверждение
Exploitation – эксплуатация voluntary – добровольный
Obligatory – обязательный bidder – заявитель
Verificatory – удостоверяющий sign – знак
Designation – обозначение executor – исполнитель
Customer – заказчик achieving - достижение
Securing – обеспечение moving – перемещение
Collaboration – сотрудничество averting – предотвращение
Causation – причинение harm – вред
Attractive – привлекательный teething – наметившаяся
Reduction – сокращение promote – способствовать
Expansion - расширение
Bases of the certification
The confirmation of correspondence can be achieved in the required (required certification) and voluntary forms (voluntary certification).
Required certification is the form of government control and can be achieved only in the cases, provided by legislative acts RК, T. e. by laws and by the normative reports of government RК. Basic purpose of conducting the required certification of goods (works, services) - confirmation of their safety for the life, the health of user, that surrounds media and averting of the causation for harm to the property of user.
Voluntary certification is conducted on the initiative applicants (producers, salesmen, executors) for purposes of the confirmation of correspondence of production (services) to the requirements of standards, technical specifications and other documents, determined by applicant. Basic purpose of conducting voluntary certification - guarantee of competitive ability of the production (service) of enterprise; the advertisement of the production (service), which corresponds not only to the requirements of safety, but also to the requirements, which ensure the quality of output (service). Thus, voluntary certification solves the wider circle of tasks and is more attractive and more informative for the buyer, than required.
In Kazakhstan at present predominates required certification, abroad - voluntary.
The teething tendency of the reduction of the nomenclature of the production, which is subject to required certification, will promote to the expansion of voluntary certification.
In the certified goods reveals the certificate of correspondence - document of the system of certification.
The production, to which is given out the certificate, is marked by the sign of correspondence, accepted in the system (Fig. 1).
Labeling production by the sign of correspondence accomplishes producer (salesman). The performance of the sign of correspondence must be contrasting against the background of surface, to which it is substituted. Labeling production should be accomplished by the methods, which ensure the resistance of correspondence to the external influencing factors.
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Fig. 1. Signs of the correspondence e to system ALL-UNION STATE STAN:
a - the sign of correspondence with the required certification; b- the sign of correspondence “the systems of voluntary certification” of the RF State Committee on Standardization, Metrology, and Certification; в - the sign of correspondence to the requirements of the national standard of the Kazakhstan.
The certificates of correspondence come into force from the date of their registration in the routine. The period of the action of certificate establishes organ for certification, not more than for 3 years.
Although the law of RF “about the protection of the rights of users” provides by sole information source against the certification marking by the sign of correspondence and the indication in the technical documentation of the information about conducting of certification, the government document (rules of sale of the separate forms of goods dated January 19, 1998.) allows this information source as the copy of certificate.
Of the copies of certificates it can give out organ for certification, given out original, or another organ for certification with the presentation to it original. Can be used also the copies of certificates, assured in the notaries office or by enterprises - holders of the first copy of certificates. State standard permitted confirmation with the inspection checking of the presence (in salesman) by the idea of commodity- invoice with the die, on which must be indicated the number of the registration of certificate, the date of its delivery, the period of action the designation of the organ, which gave out certificate. In addition to this must be indicated the address, telephone and surname of the holder of certificate- original or certificate of the first copy.
The copy of certificate must be double-sided, is executed by electrographic method and it is assured by the signature of critical linden and by the press organization, on each copy must be placed the die of organization and be indicated the output, to which is extended this copy.
Law of RK “About the certification of production and services” (in ed. from 31.07.98) determined not the obligation, but the possibility of affirming of correspondence of the established requirements in the form the declaration about the correspondence. The affirmed by government RK enumeration of the production, the correspondence to which can be confirmed declaration (it constantly is enlarged), it actually contains the slightly hazardous forms of the goods: lenses, notebook, wall-papers, sugar, baked articles, saccharine confectionery articles, fats animal are food, article macaroni and so forth.
The introduction of the declaration of correspondence in Kazakhstan is caused by the need: giving greater flexibility to the procedures of the required confirmation of correspondence; reduction in the expenditures for their conducting without an increase in the risk of the danger in the realizable on the Russian market production; the acceleration of commodity turnover; the creation of the favorable conditions for the development of intergovernmental trade and entrance of Russia into the world commercial organization (WCO).
The form of declaration is asserted by the federal organ of executive power on the technical regulation. The designed according to the established rules declaration is subject to registration by the federal organ of executive power on the technical regulation during three days.
In the immediate future the declaration of correspondence will become as abroad, the predominant form of the required confirmation of correspondence. It will not be limited by slightly hazardous production. The level of potential hazard in production will be considered in the diagram of declaration, in the case of increasing the risk from the use of production the volume of demonstrative base will increase.
Responsibility for the disturbance of the rules of certification is determined by constitution RK, law of RK “About the protection of the rights of users”, by federal law “About the technical regulation” and by other federal laws.
Control questions
1. What is the certificate of the correspondence of production?
2. How is characterized by required and voluntary certification?
3. The distinguishing features of declaration from the certification of the correspondence to production.
Lecture 7
Marking of consumer goods
Plan
1. Forms of marking.
2. Order and the rule of marking.
3. Trade mark.
Forms of the marking
In the qualitative, timely and complete information about the goods all require: producer, commercial structures, buyer. They serve as the means of commodity information: marking, technical documents, reference, training and scientific literature, advertisement and propaganda.
Marking - text, arbitrary symbols or figure, substituted to the packing and (or) goods. Depending on the place of putting the marking is distinguished production and commercial. The carriers of production marking can be labels, inserts, koleretki, labels, tallies, control tapes and other. As the carriers of commercial marking serve price lists, commodity and cashbox checks.
Order and rules of marking
Order and the rule of marking the separate forms of goods are reflected in the normative documents. General for all goods is the fact that in the marking they must be reflected:
• the designation of product;
• designation and the location of producer;
• the trade mark of producer (in the presence);
• the mass of net, either volume or a quantity of product;
• the composition of product;
• food nourishment value;
• designation and application condition for the products of children's nourishment, products of dietetic nourishment and biologically active additives;
• recommendation regarding the preparation of finished dishes for concentrates and semi finished products of foodstuffs;
• the condition of storing the foodstuffs;
• the period of fitness;
• period of storage;
• the period of the realization of foodstuff;
• the date of production and the date of packing;
• the designation of the document, in accordance with which is prepared and can be identified the product;
• information about the confirmation of the correspondence of foodstuffs.
Information locates directly per unit market container in the convenient for the reading place, it can be substituted by any method; it must be clear and easily read.
Besides general requirements for the content of information for the user, normative document (ALL-UNION STATE STAN. R 51074-2003) contains the enumeration of information on the groups of foodstuffs.
Trade mark
During marking of goods to the articles and the packing additionally are brought special designations. Trade mark and signs of tracking are, as a rule, such designations.
Trade mark - officially designed graphic representation, original name, the special combination of numbers, letters or words, which is brought to the goods by enterprise (firm) and is guarded by law.
Trade marks play important role in the competitive activity, since many buyers acquire goods of the enterprises, being oriented toward the commodity (firm) signs. There are three basic types of the designation of these signs:
• firm name - word, letter, the word group or letters, which can be ronounced;
• firm character-symbol, figure, distinctive color or designation;
• commercial sign - firm name, firm sign, commodity means or their Combination, officially registered in the international list and protected legally, what the sign R, placed next to the trade mark, indicates. If trade mark is the property of firm, thus it can have a sign s.
According to the degree of significance and prestige it is possible to isolate the commodity (firm) signs: usual and prestigious.
Usual firm signs are developed by owner or special designers with the registration or without.
Prestigious signs are appropriated to firms, enterprises for their special services to the state. In a number of the foreign countries prestigious signs (emblems) are sentenced as rewards and firm- laureate obtains the right during the specific time to place this sign on the business documents, the materials goods.
In Russia until recently there were no prestigious signs. But in 1997 at the state level was developed the position about the program “one hundred best goods of Russia” later was declared the competition of the reward of the government of the Russian Federation; acts program “Russian stamp”. On the basis these programs was declared. Every year competition among the domestic producers with the awarding to the conquerors of the sign of different degree (fig. 2).
Since 1999 in our country is conducted the competition “Russian stamp” with awarding to prize-winners of the prestigious signs:
• gold sign “Russian stamp”;
• silver sign “Russian stamp”;
• bronze sign “Russian stamp”.
Russia already has officially patented trade mark “III millennium”, which reveals to the laureates of exhibition- competition