An example of basin design
The problem. A comparison of basin irrigation with the furrow and border systems in previous subsections should provide an interesting view of the three systems collectively. To remind the reader, an irrigation project is in the planning stages in which a basic field block of 2 hectares has been chosen for field design. A preliminary survey has revealed that the fields are configured in 100 m widths and 200 m lengths. The typical slopes are .8% in the 100 m dimension and .1% in the other. Soils appear to be relatively non-erosive and have been tested to yield the following infiltration functions:
First Irrigations Z = 0.00484 r .388 + 0.00008 r
Later Irrigations Z = 0.0053 r .327 + 0.000052 r
Z has units of m3/m of length/m of width, and r has units of minutes. Anticipated application depths per irrigation based on an evaluation of cropping patterns and crop water requirements are 8 cm.
The water supply to the field is set by the project at 1.8 m3/min, available for 36 hours every 10 days. Quality of water supply is good and hopefully these deliveries will be made as expected so far as rate, duration, and frequency are concerned.
Summary
It is not possible to illustrate effectively the judgement or 'art' required to evaluate and design surface irrigation systems. The previous examples demonstrate the procedures described in this guide and, to a limited extent, alert the reader to factors he or she will need to determine on a case by case basis. There are major influences on the design process one might expect which lie far outside a mathematical treatment. For example, the size and shape of individual land holdings and their future change in response to customs for inheritance, governmental interventions such as land consolidation and resettlement, farmer preference and attitudes, harvesting and cultivating equipment limitations, etc. In short, there is not a universal algorithm for design and evaluation that eliminates the need for good judgement. On the other hand, good judgement is no substitute for the mathematical aids presented herein. One might demonstrate this by comparing the performance of a system properly designed with one where selection of inflow and cutoff time is made arbitrarily.
To be skilled in design is to completely understand the relationships among the selectable and manageable variables governing surface irrigation, particularly the effects of infiltration and stream size on advance. The mathematical treatment, if followed, helps illustrate some of the more important individual processes occurring in the field.
Because the irrigator has the latitude of changing flow rates and cutoff times, the field system may not respond as designed. The problem is unlike sprinkler and trickle irrigation where having selected and installed the system's piping, the hydraulics of the system's operation are defined. Consequently, surface irrigation design cannot provide a guaranteed level of performance but must rely on the farmer to operate and manage it efficiently. It is apparent therefore, that the role of extension and technical assistance to farmers is critical for surface irrigated regimes.
As a final thought in this section, something should be stated regarding costs associated with surface irrigation. It would be most desirable to present a comprehensive review, but such is impractical because surface irrigation systems
themselves are so widely varied. There are a number of irrigation technologies. The units here are $/ha but should be used only to indicate the relative magnitude of various system costs under agricultural conditions typical of the western United States. Other systems enter the picture as one moves from country to country.
Text 6.
Field measurements
6.1. The evaluation of surface irrigation at the field level is an important aspect of both management and design. Field measurements are necessary to characterize the irrigation system in terms of its most important parameters, to identify problems in its function, and to develop alternative means for improving the system.
System characterization necessitates a series of basic field measurements before, during, and after the irrigation. The objectives of the evaluation will dictate whether the field measurements are comprehensive or are simplified for special purposes. In some cases, there are alternative methodologies and equipment for accomplishing the same ends. The selection provided herein is based on a limited selection found to be most useful during numerous field evaluations and, in some measure, the practicality in the international sense.
Five classes of field measurements are presented: (1) field topography and configuration; (2) water requirements; (3) infiltration; (4) flow measurement; and (5) irrigation phases.
6.2All field evaluations should include a relatively simple assessment of the field topography and layout. These measurements are well enough known that only their brief mention is required. There is first of all the field's primary elevations. This information requires that a surveying instrument be used to measure elevations of the principal field boundaries (including dykes if present), the elevation of the water supply inlet (an invert and likely maximum water surface elevation), and the elevations of the surface and subsurface drainage system if possible. These measurements need not be comprehensive nor as formalized as one would expect for a land levelling project.
The field topography and geometry should be measured. This requires placing a simple reference grid on the field, usually by staking, and then surveying the elevations of the field surface at the grid points to establish slope and slope variations. Usually one to three lines of stakes placed 20-30 metres apart or such that 5-10 points are measured along the expected flow line will be sufficient. For example, a border or basin would require at most three stake lines, a furrow system as little as one, depending on the uniformity of the topography. The survey should establish the distance of each grid point from the field inlet as well as the field dimensions (length of the field in the primary direction of water movement as well as field width). There are important items of information that should be available from the survey: (1) the field slope and its uniformity in the direction of flow and normal to it; (2) the slope and area of the field; and (3) a reference system in the field establishing distance and elevation changes.
It is also worthwhile at this stage of the evaluation to record the location and extent of major soil types (this may require sampling and some laboratory analyses). The cropping pattern should be determined and, if a crop is on the field at the time of the evaluation, any obvious differences in growth and vigour should be noted. Similarly, the cultivation practices should be recorded.
Text 7.