II. Fill in the gaps in the text with the correct form of the words in capitals given in column B. Define their part of speech
| A. | B. |
| (1)_________ waters usually include dissolved salts and organic compounds, oil hydrocarbons, trace metals, suspensions, and many other substances that are components of (2)________ water from the reservoir or are used during (3)________ and other production operations. Besides, produced waters can (4) _________with the extracted oil, gas, and injection waters from the wells. All of the above make the (5)_________ of the discharged produced waters very complex and (6)________. Petroleum hydrocarbons are always present in produced waters, (7) _________ when the latter are mixed with other (8)__________waters and solutions. However, the levels of oil in discharges vary extremely. They (9)__________ not only on the specific technological situation but on the fractional composition of the oil and the (10) _________ of the oil/water separation methods as well. The oil (11)_________ mainly remove particulate and dispersed oil, while dissolved hydrocarbons in (12)__________ from 20 mg/l to over 50 mg/l go overboard as (13)________ of the discharged waters. The volumes of such discharges reach thousands of tons of oil a year. Another characteristic of the (14)_________composition of most produced waters is their very high (15)_________ . It is usually higher than the seawater's salinity reaching up to 300 g/l. Such mineralization is caused by the (16) _________of dissolved ions of sodium, potassium, magnesium, chloride, and sulfate in produced waters. Besides, produced waters often contain (17)_________ inhibitors, biocides, dispersants, emulsion breakers, and other chemicals. (18)_________ studies have revealed that produced waters frequently contain naturally (19)________ radioactive elements and their daughter products, such as radium-226 and radium-228. They are leached from the reservoir by formation waters and are carried to the surface with produced waters, oil, and gas. During contact with seawater, these radionuclides (20)________ with sulfates, precipitate, and form a relatively low level of radioactivity. | PRODUCE FORM DRILL MIXTURE COMPOSE CHANGE ESPECIAL TECHNOLOGY DEPENDANCE EFFECTIVE SEPARATE CONCENTRATE PARTIAL CHEMISTRY MINERALIZE PRESENT CORRODE RECENTLY OCCURRENCE INTERACTIVE |
Part III
Atmospheric Emissions
Although the atmospheric emissions accompany most of the oil and gas operations, this factor has not gained any special attention in the context of offshore developments. At the same time, in some areas of onland production, for example in Western Siberia and near Astrakhan in Russia, this source of pollution poses a serious threat to the water and onland ecosystems and to human health. The high content of hydrogen sulfide (6-30%) and other toxic substances in the natural gas and atmospheric emissions on the Orenburgskoye and Astrakhanskoye gas condensate fields created situations close to ecological catastrophes.
Atmospheric emissions take place at all stages of oil and gas industry's activities. The main sources of these emissions include:
- constant or periodical burning of associated gas and excessive amounts of hydrocarbons during well testing and development as well as continuous flaring to eliminate gas from the storage tanks and pressure-controlling systems;
- combustion of gaseous and liquid fuel in the energetic units (diesel-powered generators and pumps, gas turbines, internal combustion engines) on the platforms, ships, and onshore facilities; and
- evaporation or venting of hydrocarbons during different operations of their production, treatment, transportation, and storage.
In spite of the fact that some countries now prohibit flaring of oil-associated gases, it remains one of the major sources of atmospheric emissions in the world. These gases are dissolved in the crude produced oil. As the pressure goes down, they bubble out in amounts up to 300 m3 for each ton of extracted oil. The associated gases give about 30% of the gross world production of gaseous hydrocarbons. However, because of the undeveloped technology and lack of required capacities and equipment on many field developments, up to 25% of all associated gases are flared. In Russia alone, the volumes of annually burned (flared) oil-associated gases reach up to 10-17 billion cubic meters.
Components of atmospheric pollution caused by oil and gas development include gaseous products of hydrocarbon evaporation and burning as well as aerosol particles of the unburned fuel. From the ecological perspective, the most hazardous components are nitrogen and sulfur oxides, carbon monoxide, and the products of the incomplete burning of hydrocarbons. These interact with atmospheric moisture, transform under the influence of solar radiation, and precipitate onto the land and sea surfaces to form fields of local and regional pollution. According to some estimates, up to 30% of the hydrocarbons emitted into the atmosphere during well testing precipitate onto the sea surface and create distinctive and relatively unstable slicks around the offshore installations.
Technical means to rectify and prevent atmospheric pollution during offshore oil and gas production are practically identical to the analogous methods that are widely and often effectively used on land and in other industries. However, offshore atmospheric emissions thus far have not gotten the deserved attention, probably due to the remoteness of these developments from densely populated places.