XI. Read and translate the text given below. Say: a) what problems are the ecologists solving? b) what the role of the man is in the protection of nature?
We must remember and understand that despite all his power, man is biological species and only one five-millionth of all things living. Man is the child of the biosphere. And if there are qualitative changes in the earth’s biosphere, it will no longer correspond to the biological requirements of man whose ability to adapt is rather insignificant.
Ecologists say that the biological ideal is as follows: to preserve the natural balance, a third of the land and a third of the oceans must remain untouched by civilisation.
What is the scope of man’s negative influence of the biosphere?
Every year world industry pollutes the atmosphere with about 1.000 million tons of dust and other impurities. Residents of many cities suffocate from smog. The Earth’s gaseous envelope is becoming less transparent and its composition is changing, threatening the earth with climate variations.
Forests are disappearing. The conveniences of each person cost nature 300 trees. Some 40 per cent of the tropical rain forests, which are the principal suppliers of the oxygen in our atmosphere, have already been destroyed, and what is left is being uprooted or burned down at the rate of 44 hectares per minute. Deserts are advancing at the same speed. The disappearance of forests areas upsets the oxygen balance.
Ecologists have most recently estimated that between half a million and two million of plant and animal species – almost 20 per cent of the world’s flora and fauna – may disappear by the year 2005.
The ecological problem is a global problem. The key to its solution lies in the principles of using nature which a society defines in accordance with its social system.
XII. Read and learn the dialogue:
А: Do you enjoy driving around London?
B: Not really. The traffic has become much worse over the past ten years. And the drivers are very bad-tempered.
A: Tell me, Kate, is London air very polluted? Is the fog really so bad as they say?
B: Well, yes. The so called smog is quite bad. What we call smog is, in fact, smoke plus the notorious London fog.
A: Oh, I see. I think it’s mostly cars that pollute the air.
B: I disagree, I’m afraid. The exhaust fumes are dangerous, of course, but there is a wide campaign in Britain now to use lead-free petrol and better air filters. The situation is getting better, but, obviously, we still need even tighter control.
A: As for me, I don’t like cars. I prefer bicycle. It’s ecologically clean and it’s also very good for you health.
B: I love cycling too and I often go cycling in the country and in the park near my home but I can hardly imagine riding a bicycle in a big city like Kiev, particularly in the rush hour traffic.
A: True. That would be reckless, if nor suicidal, because you don’t have special cycling paths like some European cities.
B: Besides, many of your drivers are absolutely crazy. Traffic rules don’t seem to exist for them.
A: Unfortunately, you are absolutely right.
XIII. Make up your own dialogues impressing your opinion according to the problem of air pollution in Ukraine. Use the following words and word combinations:
1) Air pollution, atmosphere, chemical plants, transport, to exhaust, ecological situation, protection measures.
2) Smokeless zone, public places, the greatest danger, Chernobyl explosion, radiation, radioactive cloud, environmental organizations.
UNIT 7
I. Read and translate the following group of words:
Local weather, global climate, earth’s atmosphere, energy balance, air pollutants, infrared radiation, escape of heat, heat absorption, decomposition of organic wastes, heat-trapping gases, powerful climate models, melting of polar ice caps.
II. Translate from Russian into English the following words of the same root:
Знание – знать – знакомый; наука – научный – научно – ученый; знание – знать – знакомый; нагревание – нагревать – нагретый; изменение – изменять – изменяемый – измененный; поглощение - поглощать – поглощаемый – поглощенный – поглотитель; таять - растаявший – тающий – тая; предлагать – предложение – предложенный.
III. Read and translate the text:
Global Warming
Scientists have long known that air pollution can affect local weather. For example, smoke from factories can substantially increase rainfall in areas downwind. In recent years, however, scientists have debated the effects of air pollution on global climate.
Each day the earth is warmed by the sun. Sunlight strikes the earth and heats the surface; this heat is then slowly radiated back into atmosphere. Eventually this heat escapes the earth’s atmosphere and returns to space. Thus, an energy balance is set up: energy input is balanced by energy output.
This balance may be altered by air pollutants, notably CO2. Naturally occurring CO2 allows sunlight to pass through the atmosphere and heat the earth, but absorbs infrared radiation escaping from the earth’s surface and radiates it back to earth. This process helps maintain the earth’s temperature. Any increase in the concentration of CO2 would slow down the escape of heat.
Greenhouse effect is a rise heat absorption by certain gases in the atmosphere (called greenhouse gases because they trap heat) and re-radiation downward of a part of that heat. Greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide.
Carbon dioxide is released to the atmosphere when solid waste, fossil fuels (oil, natural gas and coal) and wood and wood products are burnt.
Methane is emitted during the production and transport of coal, natural gas and oil. Methane emissions also result from the decomposition of organic wastes in municipal solid waste landfills and the rising of livestock.
Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and industrial activities, as well as during combustion of solid waste and fossil fuels.
As the Earth's climate is the result of extremely complex interactions, scientists still cannot predict the exact impact on the earth's climate of these rising levels of heat-trapping gases over the next century. But there is striking agreement among most climate scientists about what is likely to occur. Powerful climate models suggest that the planet will warm over the next century at a more rapid rate than ever before recorded. The current best estimate is that if carbon dioxide concentrations double over pre-industrial levels, global average surface temperatures will rise between 1.8° and 6.3°F (between 1° and 3.5°C). According to the scientific possible scenarios, an atmospheric doubling of carbon dioxide could occur as early as 2050.
Future impacts from this kind of warming will most likely include:
- damage to human health;
- severe stress on forests, wetlands, and other natural habitats;
- dislocation of agriculture and commerce
expansion of the earth's deserts;
- melting of polar ice caps and consequent rise in the sea level;
- more extreme weather events.
IV. Words to be learnt:
global warming – глобальное потепление
scientist – ученый
smoke – дым
rainfall – количество осадков
downwind – по ветру
sunlight – солнечный свет
greenhouse – парниковый
nitrous oxide – веселяший газ, закись азота
interaction – взаимодействие
surface – поверхность
Exercises:
I. Find the Russian equivalents in the right-hand column for the following:
| 1. energy input | 1. возвращать |
| 2. energy output | 2. чрезвычайно |
| 3. to return | 3. мощно |
| 4. extremely | 4. выход энергии |
| 5. current | 5. уровень |
| 6. level | 6. кнопка |
| 7. to release | 7. реализовать |
| 8. powerfully | 8. удваивать |
| 9. to double | 9. потребляемая энергия |
| 10. expansion | 10. увеличение |
| 11. поток | |
| 12. освобождать |
II. Find in the text the ending of the sentences:
1. Smoke from factories can substantially increase … .
2. Each day the earth is warmed … .
3. This heat is then slowly radiated back … .
4. The current best estimate is that if carbon dioxide concentrations … .
5. Scientists still cannot predict the exact impact … .
III. Answer the following questions:
1. What air pollutants do you know?
2. What does greenhouse effect mean?
3. What are the greenhouse gases?
4. What do powerful climate models suggest?
5. What will the impacts of warming include in future?
IV. Translate the following sentences from Russian into English:
1. Дым с фабрик может увеличить количество осадков.
2. Углекислый газ изменяет баланс в природе.
3. Углекислый газ и метан – парниковые газы.
4. Многие ученые полагают, что некоторые сигналы разрушения уже начались.
5. Киты находятся в большой опасности.
6. Африканский слон и черный носорог занесены в Красную Книгу.
7. Закись азота (веселящий газ) выделяется во время горения твердых отходов.
8. Ученые полагают, что в последующие годы наша планета будет нагреваться значительно быстрее.
9. Глобальное потепление нанесет вред здоровью человека.
10. Глобальное потепление может привести к таянию полярной ледяной шапки.
V. Underline all the Prepositions. Translate the sentences:
1. At present a thousand species are almost extinct (исчезнувший) as we hunt them or damage their environment.
2. Whales are now in great danger because hunters have killed too many of them.
3. The polar bear was among the first species to be put into the Red Book.
4. Ecology studies the complex interrelation between living organisms, on the one hand, and the living organisms and the environment, on the other.
5. A river can carry a considerable load depending on the volume and the velocity of the water.
VI. State whether the underlined words are adjectives or adverbs:
1. He was also his closest companion and his closest friend.
2. Our sympathy had always been close, and was growing closer as we grew older.
3. He had worked very hard, it would be too cruel if all that industry were futile.
4. I don’t want to be too hard on you.
5. First I considered myself to be standing high on a very high mountain with a straight wide mouth.
6. The lake was much narrower now.
7. I think we should work far better to get rid of such mistakes.
VII. Read and translate the sentences paying attention to the types of conditional sentences:
a)
1. If I live in the south, I shall bathe every day.
2. If I come home late, I shall go to bed at once.
3. If I live in the country, I shall often go to the wood.
4. If I go to the wood, I shall gather many mushrooms.
5. If I find my book, I shall be very glad.
b)
1. If I were in the wood, I should gather many mushrooms.
2. If I were at the camp, I should have a very good time.
3. If I were a scientist, I should invent a time machine.
4. If I were a writer, I should write interesting novels.
5. If I were a sailor, I should sail to Africa.
c)
1. If I had met you yesterday I should have found out all about this discovery.
2. If I had read this new book I should have told you about it.
3. If I had bought a dictionary I should have translated the text.
4. If I had learned my lesson I should have got a good mark.
5. If I had gone to the library I should have got that book.
VIII. Define the types of conditional sentences, translate them into Russian:
1. If one stock from one farm is contaminated, the chosen solution is normally to destroy all nearby stocks.
2. Even if the problem can be traced back to one particular plant, there is no way of knowing where the product which came from that plant is now.
3. If you feel that your company makes a high quality product, with a traceability system in place you will finally be able to prove it and perhaps even get paid for it.
4. This is necessary if farmers are to operate profitably.
5. As this prohibition could have environmental implication if not controlled properly, it is necessary to ensure that animal waste is collected, transported, processed, stored and disposed of in a safe manner.
6. If they were busy they could not make the experiment.
7. Organic salmon is a chance, even if it is initially likely to remain a niche product.
8. Had they know the fact better, they would have allowed to make a new test.
9. Should it be necessary the researcher could make a report.
10. People would have to stop using many useful things if they wanted to end pollution immediately.
IX. Translate the following sentences from Russian into English:
1. Если бы вы знали лучше грамматику, вы бы не сделали столько ошибок в ваших упражнениях.
2. мне потребовалось много времени, чтобы перевести эту статью. Если бы вы дали мне хороший словарь, я бы потратил меньше времени.
3. Если мы не получим вашего ответа до 10 мая, мы передадим заказ другой фирме.
4. Если вы согласитесь на эти условия, мы пошлём вам наш контракт.
5. Если бы наша киевская контора получила ваши инструкции неделю тому назад, товары могли бы быть отгружены пароходом, который вышел из Одессы 15 августа.
6. Если бы я принёс словарь с собой, я мог бы перевести этот документ сейчас.
X. Read the text and discuss in pairs the importance of trees in our life:
Some critics think that American companies would be more likely to invest in domestic tree-planting. US utilities could help offset carbon dioxide emissions from new coal-fired power plants by planting millions of hectares of trees. One approach might be to plant them on marginally productive, highly edible farmland that is being taken out of use in the United States to reduce the nation’s soil erosion problem. Daniel Dudek of the Environmental Defense Fund says that utilities could lease the land that is being set aside by farmers. Here they could plant fast-growing trees like cottonwoods, providing habitat for wildlife. The cost would be about 70 cents per ton of carbon dioxide emissions removed. A utility wishing to offset emissions from a 1,000-megawatt coal-fired power plant would need to plant a forest with a 30-mile diameter. Individuals can help as well, by planting shade trees around their homes. Cities and states can help by planting trees along highways and in parks.
Tree planting will not save us from global climate change. Current emissions from fossil fuel combustion are far too great for this strategy to work by itself. Combined with measures to reduce deforestation and other approaches – like conservation, recycling and renewable fuels – tree planting can play an important part in reversing the dangerous global climate change now under way.
XI. Read and learn the dialogue:
A.: Have you heard or read anything of air pollution?
В.: Well, in my opinion, air pollution today is one of the main problems of life, connected with our environment. I've read that more than 50 per cent of the American population lives in areas of constant air pollution.
A.: Yes, each year in the United States more than 20 million tons of sulphur are discharged into the atmosphere, most of it in the form of SO2.
В.: But I've learnt that the opinion as to the toxicity of SO2 and H2SO4 to plants and animals is controversial, as is the effect of these compounds, when they are inhaled along with other components of smog.
A.: You see, many years must elapse before precise conclusions can be reached concerning the role of the sulphur compounds.
В.: And, still, in the meantime the public are becoming impatient with slow progress made in overcoming air pollution.
XII. Make up your own dialogues impressing your opinion according to the problem of global warming. Use the following words and word combinations:
1) Global warming, local weather, global climate, earth’s atmosphere, energy balance, air pollutants, according to data.
2) Escape of heat, heat absorption, invention, heat-trapping gases, powerful climate models, melting of polar ice caps, to warm, sun.
UNIT 8
I. Read and translate the following group of words:
Environmental threats, acid deposition, aquatic organisms, soil fertility, acid precipitation, universal threat, degree of acidity, basic substances, neutral substances, unpolluted environment rainwater, wet deposition, dry deposition.
II. Translate from Russian into English the following words of the same root:
Расширение – расширять – расширенный – широкий; реклама - рекламировать; воображение – воображаемый – воображать; мера - измерять – измерение – измеренный – измеримый – измеримость - измеренная величина; влажность – увлажнять – увлажненный - увлажнение.
III. Read and translate the text:
Acid deposition
Widely publicized as one of the most serious environmental threats facing us today, acid deposition is phenomenon of great environmental and economic importance. Evidence is mounting to show that acid deposition turns lakes acidic, kills fish and other aquatic organisms, damages crops, destroys forests, alters soil fertility, and destroys statues and buildings. Moreover, scientists are finding that acid precipitation is more widespread than once thought and is taking a larger toll on our environment and pocketbooks than originally imagined. Recent reports indicate that it poses a universal threat, affecting the developed countries as well as many Third World nations.
Acid deposition refers to the deposition of all forms of acids from the sky. To understand this phenomenon more clearly requires a look at acids: how they form in the atmosphere and how they are deposited.
Acidity is related to the amount of free hydrogen ions (H+) in solution. The degree of acidity is measured on the pH (potential hydrogen) scale, which ranges from 0 to 14. Substances that are acidic, such as vinegar and lemon juice, have low pH values, that is, less than 7 pH. Basic (alkaline) substances, such as baking soda and lime, have high pH values on the scale – greater than 7. Neutral substances, such as pure water, have a pH of 7. A change of 1 pH unit represents a tenfold change in the level of acidity; thus, rain with a pH of 4 is 10 times more acidic than rain with a pH of 6, and 1000 times more acidic than rain with a pH of 7.
In an unpolluted environment rainwater is slightly acidic, having a pH of approximately 5.7; the normal acidity of rainwater is created as atmospheric CO2 is dissolved in water in clouds, mist, or fog and is converted into a mild acid, carbonic acid. Acid precipitation is rain and snow with a pH below 5.7.
Wet deposition
Acid rain and snow are formed when two pollutants gases, the sulfur and nitrogen oxides, combine with water. Sulfur oxides form sulfuric acid; nitrogen oxide gases react with water to form nitric acid. Both are powerful acids. They may accumulate in clouds and fall from the sky in rain and snow. This process is called wet deposition.
Dry deposition
Sulphur and nitrogen oxide gases also form sulfate and nitrate particulates. These may settle out of the atmosphere like fine dust particles. This process is called dry deposition. Settling onto surfaces, these particulates can combine with water to form acids. Sulfur and nitrogen oxide gases may also be absorbed onto the surfaces of plants or solid surfaces, where they, too, combine with water to form acids. This is another type of dry deposition.
IV. Words to be learnt:
acid deposition – кислотное отложение
to publicize – сообщать, разглашать
evidence – ясность, доказательство
to mount – увеличиваться, возрастать
Third World nations – развивающиеся страны
acidity – кислота
approximately – приблизительно
to dissolve – растворять
to convert – превращать
to accumulate - накапливать
Exercises:
I. Find the Russian equivalents in the right-hand column for the following:
| 1. threat | 1. плодородие |
| 2. deposition | 2. требовать |
| 3. fertility | 3. туман |
| 4. toll | 4. сухой |
| 5. to require | 5. угроза |
| 6. to alter | 6. мокрый |
| 7. fog | 7. оседать |
| 8. wet | 8. отложение |
| 9. dry | 9. изменять |
| 10. to settle out | 10. потери |
| 11. рекомендовать | |
| 12. ветер |
II. Make up the beginning of the sentences:
1. … refers to the deposition of all forms of acids from the sky.
2. … is measured on the pH scale.
3. … is slightly acidic, having a pH of approximately 5.7.
4. … is rain and snow with a pH below 5.7.
5. … bathe trees with highly acidic water.
III. Answer the following questions:
1. What is acid deposition?
2. What does acidity mean?
3. What types of acid deposition do you know?
4. What is wet deposition?
5. What is dry deposition?
IV. Translate the following sentences from Russian into English:
1. Такие кислотные осаждения как кислотный дождь и снег становятся широко распространенными.
2. Кислотный дождь разрушает статуи и здания.
3. Кислотные осаждения проблема не только развитых стран, но уже многих развивающихся стран.
4. В Канаде более 100 озер стали кислотными.
5. Плодородность почвы находится под угрозой.
6. Кислотный дождь образуется путём смешивания двух загрязненных газов с водой.
7. Даже прибрежные туманы могут содержать кислоту.
8. Вулканы, лесные пожары являются природными источниками оксида серы.
9. Наиболее важные антропогенные источники оксид азота - электростанции и автомобильная промышленность.
10. Существует два типа кислотных осаждений – сухое и мокрое осаждение.
V. Put questions to the italicized parts:
1. The flowers have been kept without water for a week.
2. The walls are being covered with green paint.
3. This proposal will be thought over next week.
4. She has been told everything about this matter.
5. A new danger was being carried towards them by the river.
6. The autumn leaves were being whirled towards the sky.
7. The business has been taken over by a new company.
8. Two days later the operation was performed.
VI. Underlined the subordinate clauses, state of what kind they are and translate the sentences into Russian:
1. If the earth had no atmosphere, its heated surface would quickly radiate back into space all the energy which reaches it from the sun.
2. If the earth were a true sphere, life would be a great deal simpler, especially for mapmakers, geographers, navigators, oil prospectors and many other specialists.
3. We are now trying to find methods of controlling the fusion process, so that we may use it to give us heat and electricity.
4. Present satellites carry up to six times more solar cells than they would require if the cells were constantly exposed to the sun.
5. The amount of water evaporated each year from the oceans would be sufficient, if it were carried to the continents and uniformly distributed to cover all the land with more than 100 inches of rain and snow.
6. The engineer proposed that computer should be used to control the production process.
7. If automatic control had been used, many variable parameters could have been measured and controlled.
8. An important difference between marine and fresh-water fish is that the flesh of the latter contains practically no iodine or bromine.
9. The flash of marine fishes has a larger salt concentration than that of fresh-water species mainly because of a larger quantity of chlorides.
10. The device which you see on the stand was designed in our laboratory.
VII. Define what conjunctions could be inserted in the following joined clauses:
1. The lack in the region of intensive rearing models for species was one of the factors limited the use of traditional facilities.
2. The application the radioactive isotopes are finding in different fields of life is of growing importance.
3. The properties of a composite matter are always quite different from those of the elements it consists of.
4. It is established there are three varieties of radiations from radioactive atoms.
5. The amount of heat a body contains is something quite different from its temperature.
VIII. Read the text and express your opinion according to the new acid rain threat:
The environmental Defense fund (EDF) recently uncovered another, potentially troublesome impact of acid deposition. They believe that nitrogen in the form of nitrates or nitric acid that is deposited in Chesapeake Bay stimulates the growth of algae and aquatic plants. Excess plant growth can impair navigation. Moreover, surface plants can reduce light penetration, robbing deeper layers of sunlight needed to promote photosynthesis. Photosynthesis helps maintain oxygen levels in deeper waters. Without it, sealife may perish. When sea vegetation dis in the fall, it decays. The bacteria that break down this organic matter rob the water of oxygen, killing many aquatic organisms in the process.
According to the EDF’s estimates, acid deposition contributes at least one-fourth of the nitrogen entering Chesapeake Bay each year from human activities. Acid deposition, in fact, ranks second only to fertilizer runoff as a source of nitrogen. EDF scientists believe that acid precipitation may be a significant source of nitrogen pollution along the entire eastern seaboard and could negate efforts to reduce surface runoff.
The EDF has recommended that the states in Chesapeake Bay watershed find ways to cut nitrogen oxide emissions from power plants, factories, and motor vehicles. Improved energy efficiency, they say, could go a long way toward cutting emissions.
IX. Make up your own dialogues answering the next questions:
1. What causes acid rain?
2. What parts of the world are the most affected by acid rain?
3. What are the effects of acid rain on plants and animals?
4. What are some human health concerns associated with acid rain?
5. How can acid rain be prevented?
UNIT 9
I. Read and translate the following group of words:
Toxic substances, developed countries, wide number of adverse effects, acute effects, chronic effects, birth defects, reproductive impairment, proliferation of cells, alteration of the genetic material, testicular cancer, workplace pollutants, reproductive toxicity.
II. Translate from Russian into English the following words of the same root:
Движение – двигаться – движущийся - неподвижный; причина - послужить причиной – причинный – беспричинный; результат - происходить в результате – результативный – результирующий; размножение – размножающий – размножать; подозревать - подозрительный – заподозренный; предсказывать – предсказуемость - предсказуемый – предсказанный – предсказывающий - предсказуемо - предсказание; ожидание – ждать – ожидание (процесс) – ожидающий.
III. Read and translate the text:
Toxic substances
Citizens of developed countries depend on a vast number of chemical substances, some of which may be harmful to human health and the environment. Toxic substances, or toxins, are those chemicals that cause any of a wide number of adverse effects in organisms. Toxicology is the study of these effects. Humans are exposed to toxins at home, at work, and while moving about in the environment. Acute effects manifest immediately after exposure, are often short-lived, and are generally caused by high levels of exposure. Chronic effects are delayed, long-lasting, and generally the result of low-level exposure. Toxic effects include cancer, mutations, birth defects, and reproductive impairment.
Cancer, an uncontrolled proliferation of cells, is often caused by an alteration of the genetic material, although other mechanisms may be involved. The incidence of cancer has nearly leveled off since 1950 in most cases except for lung cancer, testicular cancer, and stomach cancer. Recent evidence shows that 20% to 40% of all cancers are caused by environmental workplace pollutants.
Mutations, or structural changes in the genetic material of cells, are caused by chemical and physical agents called mutagens. Mutations occur in humans at a fairly rapid rate but are usually repaired. If not repaired, they may lead to cancer. If they occur in germ cells, they may be passed on to offspring, leading to birth defects, stillbirth, spontaneous abortion, or cancer.
Birth defects – structural and functional ailments – are observed in 7% of all newborn. The study of birth defects is called teratology. Agents that cause them are called teratogens. In humans, there are few known teratogens, although many substances are suspected.
Reproductive toxicity is the study of the toxic effects of chemical and physical agents during the reproductive cycle. Numerous chemical agents impair human reproduction.
Toxins exert their effects at the cellular level by blocking enzyme activity, by binding to cells or molecules within cells, and by causing the release of naturally occurring substances in amounts harmful to organisms. Numerous factors affect toxic agents, making it difficult to predict the effects. Some of these include dose, age, health status, synergy, and antagonism. Synergy occurs when different substances act together to produce a response that is stronger than expected. Antagonism occurs when substances negate the effects of each other.
Toxicity is also profoundly influenced by bioconcentration, the ability of an organism to selectively accumulate certain chemicals within its body in certain tissues.
IV. Words to be learnt:
adverse – враждебный
exposed – уязвимый, беззащитный
impairment – ухудшение, ослабление
germ – зародыш
offspring – потомок
stillbirth – рождение мертвого плода
ailment – недомогание
teratology – тератология (наука, изучающая врожденные пороки развития и уродства)
to predict – предсказывать, прогнозировать
Exercises:
I. Find the Russian equivalents in the right-hand column for the following:
| 1. citizen | 1. появляться |
| 2. harmful | 2. распространение |
| 3. to manifest | 3. изменение |
| 4. exposure | 4. наблюдать |
| 5. proliferation | 5. снижать |
| 6. alteration | 6. привязывать |
| 7. to observe | 7. гражданин |
| 8. to impair | 8. экспозиция |
| 9. to bind | 9. фонд |
| 10. profoundly | 10. сильно |
| 11. подвергание | |
| 12. вредный |
II. Find in the text the ending of the sentences:
1. Bioconcentration is the ability of an organism to selectively accumulate … .
2. Acute effects manifest … .
3. Citizens of developed countries depend … .
4. Mutations occur in humans at a fairly rapid rate but … .
5. Cancer is often caused by … .
III. Answer the following questions:
1. What is toxicology?
2. Where are humans exposed to toxins?
3. What is cancer?
4. What is teratology? Do teratogenic chemicals always create birth defects when given during pregnancy? Why or why not?
5. How do toxins exert their effects at the cellular level?
IV. Translate the following sentences from Russian into English:
1. Около 60 тыс. химических веществ продаётся в коммерческих целях в США.
2. Наиболее важная проблема, связанная с токсичными веществами, заключается в том, что мы не владеем информацией о последствиях.
3. Существует рак лёгких, рак желудка и рак яичников.
4. Мутация – это структурные изменения в генетическом материале клеток.
5. Учение пороков развития называется тератологией.
6. Наиболее часто встречающиеся дефекты это волчья пасть, отсутствие конечностей и расщелина позвоночника.
7. Если женщине больше 30 лет, то есть вероятность того, что ребёнок будет иметь неправильное число хромосом.
8. Мутации могут быть вызваны химическими веществами.
9. Учёные доказали, что эмоции играют значительную роль в развитии рака.
10. Химикаты могут нанести вред любой клетке организма человека.
V. Fill in modal verbs. Translate into Russian:
1. Originally the Earth’s temperature (вероятно) have been extremely high. (may, could, must)
2. They (по-видимому) have been finished their experiment, but the laboratory assistant doesn’t know about it yet. (should, would, can)
3. The researchers (не следовало) have ignored the specialist’s remarks. (ought, must, should)
4. They (следовало) have tested new equipment. (would, might, should)
5. Different kinds of plants and animals (нуждаются) different kinds of surroundings. (had to, need, are to)
6. (Hеужели) the individual efforts of a single country be effective in conservation of nature? (must, can, could)
7. This (возможно) have been the most fundamental feature of the physical environment. (could, might, must)
8. The importance of solar radiation (нельзя) be overstressed because it supplies all the energy available for all the processes of life in all organisms. (cannot, needn’t, should)
9. (Неужели) many animals have spent part of their lives in water and part in air. (could, might, should)
10. All organisms (нуждаются) in water and air. (are able to, could, need)
VI. Define the forms of Subjunctive mood and translate the sentences below into Russian:
1. Without water life on earth would cease.
2. It should be emphasized that the activity of the sun is the result of the existence of intense magnetic fields.
3. It is important that the substance should remain liquid at the lowest temperature.
4. The scientist demanded that the materials which are to be used in this research be carefully tested.
5. With a different atmosphere, the radiation reaching the surface of the early earth would have been different with important consequences.
6. We wish that you would tell us what this substance consists of.
7. The Earth behaves as if it were a large magnet.
8. A tidal power plant has been built on the Barents Sea so that the energy of the sea could be utilized.
9. It is necessary that the research be conducted daily.
10. He suggested that the old device be substituted.
11. Without the oceans, the earth would have greater extremes of cold and heat that it now has.
12. The researcher wishes his project were appreciated by everybody.
13. The experiment might have given good results if we had all the necessary material.
14. If they were to see his experiment, they would get a clear conception of this phenomenon.
15. He proposed that this fact be used to define a temperature scale.
VIII. Translate the following sentences into English, paying attention to the usage of the Subjunctive Mood:
1. Руководители проекта предлагают, чтобы строительные работы велись на очень высоком уровне
2. Необходимо, чтобы команда специалистов постоянно трудилась над разработкой новых технологий.
3. Необходимо, чтобы проводилось более активное сотрудничество между наукой и производством.
4. Были установлены мощные генераторы, чтобы не случились перебои с подачей электроэнергии.
5. Фирма настаивает на том, чтобы закупили новые очистные фильтры.
IX. Read and a) explain why the problem of the oxygen and carbon dioxide content in the atmosphere is so important nowadays; b) give an example to show that the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere may be dangerous; c) say what information about DNA you could get from the passage:
The interrelations of biological processes in the soil, the oceans and the atmosphere are complex and delicate. Most species are in equilibrium with their environment and this situation is required for long-term survival. An example of a complex problem involving oceanography, geology, biology, atmospheric physics and astronomy concerns the oxygen and carbon dioxide content of the atmosphere. Briefly, atmospheric oxygen is produced by green plants, and carbon dioxide is absorbed by the oceans and utilized by plants. Industrial atmosphere pollution and the exhausts of automobiles have several effects. They increase the amount of haze and dust in the atmosphere and lead to smog which contributes to lung diseases in humans. The dust in the atmosphere reduces the solar heating and may affect the climate. Industry and automobiles also add to the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere; burning of fossil fuels between 1860 and 1960 increased the atmospheric carbon dioxide content by 14 per cent. Carbon dioxide contributes to the greenhouse effect whereby the sun's energy is trapped in our atmosphere and the earth's surface temperature is raised. Estimates vary, but the oppositely directed affects of the carbon dioxide and dust in the air could eventually result either in melting of the polar ice caps and a disastrous rise in sea level or in a new ice age, depending on which pollution products dominate.
The amino acid and the nucleotide have very different functions in the chemistry of life. Within the cell the amino acids are linked together into very large molecules called proteins. One class of proteins, called structural proteins, makes up the structural elements of the living organism — the walls of the cell, hair, muscles and bone. The structural proteins are like the steel framework and walls of a building. The other type of protein is called the enzyme. Many kinds of enzymes exist; each kind controls one of the many chemical reactions that are necessary to sustain the life of the organism.
All proteins in all forms of life, plant and animal, are constructed out of the same basic set of twenty amino acids. One protein differs from another only in the way in which its constituent amino acids are linked together. However, these differences are all-important. The distinction between a man and a mouse, in both appearance and personality, depends entirely on the differences between the proteins contained in the cells of their bodies.
Proteins are assembled within living organisms by the second set of building blocks— the nucleotides. Nucleotides are joined together within the cell to form very long chains, called nucleic acids. The most important type of nucleic acid is called deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA for short. DNA is the largest molecule known, containing, in advanced organisms such as man, as many as 10 billion separate atoms. The size of the DNA molecule is understandable when we consider the complexity and importance of its functions in the living cell. The DNA molecule is the most important molecule in every living organism, even more important than the protein, because it determines which proteins will be assembled; the DNA molecule has the master plan for the organism.
X. Discussing questions to the unit:
1. Define the term toxin, carcinogen, teratogen and mutagen.
2. Compare and contrast acute toxicity and chronic toxicity with respect to time to onset of symptoms, persistence of the effect, level of the toxic agent and duration of exposure.
3. Make the list of factors that influence the toxicity of a chemical in a given individual.
4. Why is our knowledge of the effects of toxic chemicals on humans so limited?
UNIT 10
I. Read and translate the following group of words:
Environmental organizations, to set up, decision-making body, public organizations, local level, environmentally-inclined mentality, ecological league, nature protection activities, sustainable development, climate change issues.
II. Translate from Russian into English the following words of the same root:
Организация – организовывать – организационный – организатор – организованный; добавление – добавлять – добавочный; улучшение – улучшать – улучшенный – улучшающийся; образование – давать образование – образованный – образовательный; закон - законодательствовать – законодательный – законодатель.
III. Read and translate the text: