From the history of london

In the year 55 before our era a Roman legion headed by Julius Cesar crossed the English Channel that divides the British Isles from the continent of Europe. Having landed in Britain the Romans founded a military station on the northern bank of the river Thames. Being skilled in the art of building they started fortifying¹ their set­tlements with thick massive walls and laying roads across the country leading to the sea coast. After staying in Britain for two centuries the Romans returned to the continent having left behind excellent roads and strong fortifications. One of Roman settlements was called Londinium Augusta. Four centuries later, according to some historians, the capital of Britain was founded in its locality, part of the Roman wall still lying deep under the ground beneath modern London.

No other ancient monuments of Roman times have remained in the city. The earliest historical monument of English architecture is the so called Tower of London which has retained its name up to the present day. Being erected on the ruins of a Roman fortress, it consists of parts belonging to different periods of English history, its central and most ancient part being the huge square tower four storeys high. It was called the White Tower, deriving its name from the white stone it was built of. The White Tower was surrounded with a double row of walls with smaller towers forming the inner and outer court with the scaffold in the back of it.

THE TOWER

Looking at the Tower you feel its close connection to the historical past of England with its constant and cruel fight­ing for power. Since the time of its erection the Tower of London has served many purposes: first a king's palace, then a fortress and a political prison. Now it is a museum.

Several kings of England found protection within its walls both against foreign enemies and their own people fighting for their liberties and privileges. The White Tower was the royal residence, all the kings of England spending the first days of their reign there according to an ancient custom. From the White Tower kings went to their coronation and out of it some of them came down to the scaffold lying in the outer court, forced to surrender their power to new pretenders.

All the towers in the walls surrounding the White Tow­er served as places of imprisonment, each of them keep­ing some dark and tragic secret. Narrow galleries, steep staircases, secret passages and dark cells formed in the thickens of the walls exist up to the present day. Among the numerous prisoners were kings of England, France and Scotland, princes and noblemen, protestants and catho­lics, scientists and public leaders. Shakespeare mentioned many of their tragic fate in his historical plays.

ENGLISH UNIVERSITIES

All English universities except Oxford and Cambridge are fairly new. London University is the biggest of the modern English universities and has many colleges and schools.

A university usually has both faculties and depart­ments. The faculties are arts, law, medicine, science and theology. The departments include engineering, econom­ics, commerce, agriculture, music and technology.

At the head of each faculty there is a professor. A staff of teachers called lecturers help him. Professors and lec­turers give lectures to large numbers of students or study with small groups, and here the students have a chance to discuss.

All universities admit men and women, but within some universities there are colleges specially for one sex. Most of the universities provide hostels for their stu­dents. There are many types of colleges in England. There are colleges within universities. There are teachers' training colleges. There are also technical colleges of various types, colleges of arts and commerce. Colleges give a specialized training.

• Those who wish to become teachers spend three years at a teachers' training college. They study various sub­jects and learn how to teach, they have practice lessons at schools.

CHARLES DARWIN

A hundred years ago people believed that plants and animals had always been as they are now. They thought that all the different sorts of living things, including men and women, were put in this world by some mysterious power a few thousand years ago.

It was Charles Darwin, born at Shrewsbury on the 12th of February, 1809,who showed that this was just a leg­end. As a boy Darwin loved to walk in the country-side, collecting insects, flowers and minerals. He liked to watch his elder brother making chemical experiments. These hobbies interested him much more than Greek and Latin, which were his main subjects at school.

His father, a doctor, sent Charles to Edinburgh Uni­versity to study medicine. But Charles did not like this. He spent a lot of time with a zoologist friend, witching birds and other animals, and collecting insects in the country-side.

Then his father sent him to Cambridge to be trained as a parson. But Darwin didn't want to be a doctor or a parson. He wanted to be a biologist.

In 1831 he set sail for South America to make maps of the coastline there. Darwin went in the ship to see the ani­mals and plants of other lands. On his voyage round the world he looked carefully at thousands of living things in the sea and on land and came to very important conclusion. Later he wrote his famous work «The Origin of Species». On Snobbery

Snobbery is not so common in England today as it was at the beginning of the century. It still exists, however, and advertisers know how to use it in order to sell their goods.

A snob, the dictionaries tell us, is a person who pays too much respect to social position or wealth. The popu­lar newspapers know that many of their readers are snobs. That is why they give them unimportant and use­less information about persons of high social position, photographs of «Lady X and her friends» at a ball or «Lord Y and his friends» at the races.

It is a snobbery that makes some men feel annoyed when on the envelopes of letters addressed to them they find Mr. before their names instes of Esq. after their names. Snobbery explains why many people give their suburban house a name, such as The Oaks, The Pines, The Cedars, even though there are no oak trees, pine trees or cedar trees in their gardens. People of high social po­sition have country houses with names, because a house with a name seems «better» than a house with a number. Numbers make the postman's work much easier, but that is not important.

The advertisers are very clever in their use of snobbery. Motor-car manufacturers, for example advertise the col­ours of their cars as «Embassy Black», though this is ordi­nary black,'or «Balmoral Stone». Balmoral Stone is the grey colour of ordinary stone, but Balmoral is also the name of the residence in Scotland of the British Royal family.

The Thanksgiving Day

One day the people of the village suddenly saw a tall Indian who was walking along the street. They were frightened very much, but this Indian came up to them, smiled and said, «Hallo, Yankee!»

Few days later this Indian came to the village again together with some other Indians. They came as friends and helped the white men very much. But white men for­got about this help very quickly, a few years later when many people from Europe came to America, they began to take the land away from the Indians and to kill them.

At last spring came. The people of New Plymouth be­gan to plant corn, and the Indians showed them how to plant maize. In autumn the crops were very good and the people of New Plymouth wanted to make a holiday din­ner. They asked the Indians to this dinner, and the Indi­ans brought some wild turkeys as a present. The turkey was an American bird. Very few people in Europe had ever heard about it but when they ate it at this dinner they liked it very much. The people of New Plymouth called their holiday «Thanksgiving Day».

Since that time Thanksgiving Day has been a great holiday in the United States of America, and since that day Americans have always had turkeys for the Thanks­giving Day.

MAYFLOWER

It was in 1620, in the time of King James the First. English people did not like their king and they called him «The foolish King of England». Many of them even left England and went to live in other countries.

In November, 1620 a a small chip, the Mayflower, left England. There were about one hundred people aboard the ship. For seven long weeks the Mayflower was in the waves and storms of the Atlantic Ocean, and at last the people saw land. It was America.

It was already autumn. It was raining and a cold wind was blowing. Sixteen men left the Mayflower and went ashere. In the evening they came back to the ship and brought some maize with them. When the people on board the Mayflower tried it they liked it very much.

Next day was Sunday and everybody on the Mayflow­er had a rest. On Monday some men went ashore again and this time they took some women with them. The wom­en had to wash the clothes. Simce that tiae Monday has been a wash-day in America.

During the next five weeks the mea from the Mayflow­er left the ship every day. Sometimes they did not come back for many days; they were looking for a good place to live. There was a good harbour for ships there, some field aad forests near it and even a small river. The peo­ple began to build a village there.

On January, 1621 there were already two streets in this village, and they called it «New Plymouth».

One day the people of the village suddenly saw a tall Indian who was walking along the street. They were frightened very much, but this Indian came up to them, smiled and said, «Hallo, Yankee!»

Few days later this Indian came to the village again together with some other Indians. They came as friends aad helped the white men very anch. But white men for­got about this help very quickly; a few yeas later when many people from Europe came to America, thay began to take the land away from the Indians and to kill them.

At last spring came. The people of New Plymouth be­gan to plant corn, and the Indians showed them how to plant maize.

In autumn the crops were very good and the people of New Plymouth wanted to make a holiday dinner. They asked the Indians to this dinner and the Indians brought some wild turkeys as a present. The turkey was an Amer­ican bird. Very few people in Europe had ever heard aboat it, but when they ate it at this dinner they liked it very much. The people of New Plymouth called their holiday «Thanksgiving Day».

NEWTON'S DINNER

Sir Isaac Newton was often so deeply interested in dif­ficult problems that he became quite absent-minded. One day a gentleman came to see him, but was told that Sir Isaac was busy in his study and that nobody was allowed to disturb him.

As it was dinner-time, the visitor sat down in the din­ing-room to wait for the scientist. The servant came in and placed on the table a boiled chicken under a cover. An hour passed, but Newton did not appear. The gentle­man, feeling hungry, ate chicken, and covering up the skeleton, asked the servant to prepare another one for his master.

Before the second chicken was ready, however, the scientist entered the room, apologizing for his delay. Then he added: «As I feel rather tired and hungry, I hope you will excuse me a little longer, while I take my din­ner, and then I will be at your service». With these words he lifted the cover, and without emotion turned round to the gentleman and said: «See what a strange people we scientists are. I quite forgot that I had dined already».

At this moment the servant brought in the other chick­en. The visitor explained how matters stood. After a hearty laugh, the hungry scientist sat down to dine.

A LESSON IN POLITENESS

Jonathan Swift, the famous English writer and the author of «Gulliver's Travels» was not very generous. He seldom gave anything to the servants or those who sent him presents. But once he received a lesson from a boy who very often carried him hares, partridges, and other game.

One day the boy arrived with a heavy basket contain­ing fish, fruit, and game. He knocked at the door and Swift by chance opened it himself. «Here», said the boy gruffly, « my master has sent you a basket full of things ».

Swift, feeling displeased at the boy's rude manner, said to him: «Come here, my boy, and I will teach you how to deliver a message a little more politely; come, imagine yourself Jonathan Swift, and I will be the boy». Then taking off his hat very politely, and addressing him­self to the boy, he said. «Sir, my master sends you a little present, and begs you will do him the honour to accept it».

«Oh, very well, my boy», replied the boy, «tell your master I am much obliged to him, and there is half a crown for yourself». Swift laughed heartily,- and gave the boy a crown for his wit.

ENGLISH CHARACTER

One of the most striking features of English life is the self-discipline and courtesy of people of all classes .There is little noisy behaviour, and practically no loud disput­ing in the street. People do not rush excitedly for seats in buses or trains, but take their seats in queues at bus stops in a quiet and orderly manner.

Englishmen are naturally polite and are never tired Kn saying «Thank you», «I'm sorry», «Beg your pardon». Ц you follow anyone who is entering a building or a room, will hold a door open for you. Many foreigners have commented on a remarkable politeness of the English people.

English people don't like displaying their emotions even in dangerous and tragic situations, and ordinary people seem to remain good-tempered and cheerful un-ler difficulties.

The Englishman does not like any boasting or show-iing off in manners, dress or speech. Sometimes he con-Iceals his knowledge: a linguist, for example, may not |mention his understanding of a foreigner's language.

The Englishman prefers his own house to an apart-'ment in a block of flats, because he doesn't wish his do­ing to be overlooked by his neighbours. «An English­man's house is his castle».

Many Englishmen help their wives at home in many ways. They clean the windows on Saturday afternoon, they often wash up the dishes after supper in the evening.

Sunday is a very quiet day in London. All the shops are closed, and so are the theatres and most of the cine­mas.

Londoners like to get out of town on Sundays. The sea is not far — only fifty or sixty miles away and people like to go down to the sea in summer or somewhere to the country for skiing in winter.

AMERICAN CHARACTER

American society seems to be much more informal than the British and, in some ways, is characterised by less social distinction. Students do not rise when a teach­er enters the room. One does not always address a person by his title, such as «Major» or «General» or «Doctor». The respectful «Sir» is not always used in the northern and western parts of the country.

However, it is best to use a person's title when first meeting him/her, and then allow the person to tell you how he/she wishes to be called.

They use first names when calling each other, slap on the back, joke and are much freer in their speech, which is more slangy than the conventional British English. You will often hear the word «Hi» (a form of greeting among friends) used instead of the usual «Hello», and «Howdy» instead of «How do you do?».

Yet, in spite of all the informality, Americans, even in the way they address each other, show consciousness of social distinction. For example, one is likely to use somewhat more formal language when talking to superi­ors. While the informal «Hello» is an acceptable greet­ing from employee to employer, the employee is more api, to say «Hello, Mr. Ferguson», while the employer may reply «Hello, Jim».

Certain other forms of politeness are observed on so­cial occasions. Women may wear hats in church, in restaurants, and often when attending luncheons in public places and other public social functions expect those that take place in the evening. Men who do wear hats ordi­narily remove them in elevators, churches, restaurants, private homes, business offices — in fact, in most public situations when they wish to show respect.

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

The last half of the XVI and the beginning of the XVII enturies are known as the golden age of English litera­ture. It was the time of the English Renaissance, and sometimes it is even called «the age of Shakespeare».

William Shakespeare, the greatest and most famous of English writers, and probably the greatest playwright who has ever lived, was born in Straford-on-Avon. We know very little about his life. The things that we know about Shakespeare's life begin with the date when he was baptised in the church of Stratford, on April 26, 1564, when he was only a few days old. So he is believed to have been born on April 23.

Though little is known about William's childhood, there is every reason to believe that he was educated at the local Grammar School. When little over eighteen he married Anne Halthaway of Shottery.

William lived in Stratford until he was about twenty-one, when he went to London. We do not know why he left Stratford-on-Avon.

There is a story that Shakespeare's first job in Lon­don was holding rich men's horses at the theatre door. But nobody can be sure that this story is true.

Later, Shakespeare became an actor and a member of one of the chief acting companies. Soon he began to write plays for this company and in a few years became a well-known author.

Shakespeare's experience as an actor (although he usually acted only small parts, like the Ghost in Hamlet) helped him greatly in the writing of his plays. His knowl­edge of the stage and his poetical genius made his plays the most wonderful ones ever written.

Shakespeare's wrote 37 plays. Among them there are deep tragedies, such as Hamlet, King Lear, Othello, Macbeth, light comedies, such as All's Well That Ends Well, Twelfth Night, historical dramas, such as Henry IV, Richard III.

Most of Shakespeare's plays were not published in his lifetime. So some of them may have been lost in the fire when the «Globe» burned down in 1613.

Shakespeare's spent the last years of his life at Strat­ford, where he died in 1616. He was buried in the church of Stratford. A monument was erected to the memory of the great playwright in the Poets Corner in Westminster Abbey.

CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS

In the fifteenth century people knew only three conti­nents: Europe, Asia and Africa. They knew nothing about such a big continent as America.

The man who was thought to be the discoverer of America was born in 1451 in Italy. His name was Chris­topher Columbus. He probably worked as a weaver be­fore going to sea.

At that time the life of a sailor was full of adventure and danger, so Columbus had many exciting experienc­es. Once during a battle with a vessel off the coast of Por­tugal, he had to leave his boat and swim to the shore a long distance away. He afterwards lived in Portugal a number of years, and while there, he married the daugh­ter of a sea captain. For some time he earned his living, partly by making sea voyages, and partly by drawing maps and selling them.

Knowing that the earth was round, he decided to reach India by sailing to the west. It was very difficult for him to organise his expedition as nobody wanted to help him. Many years after, the Spanish government gave him some money for his expedition.

In 1492 he sailed with three small ships into the At­lantic Ocean. They had been sailing for more than two months. At last they saw land.

When they landed they saw strange trees and flow­ers. Men and women with olive coloured skins gathered around them and looked at them with great surprise.

Columbus was certain that the lands he discovered were part of India, and he called these islands the West Indies. The people living there have been called Indians since then, though they have nothing in common with the real Indians — inhabitants of India.

His last voyage was made in 1502-1504. After that, seriously ill, he remained in Spain-until his death. He died believing that Cuba was part of Asia.

ACID RAINS

Every year more and more plants and animals disap­pear never to be seen again. Strangely, it is the most in­telligent but most thoughtless animal that is causing most of the problems — man. Nature is very carefully balanced and if this balance is disturbed, animals can disappear alarmingly fast. Every day, thousands of spe­cies of animals draw closer to extinction.

In many lakes fish are dying. Fishermen are worried because every year there are fewer fish and some lakes have no fish at all. Scientists are beginning to get wor­ried too. What is killing the fish?

The problem is acid rain. Acid rain is a kind of air pol­lution. It is caused by factories that burn coal or oil or gas. These factories send smoke high into the air. The wind often carries the smoke far from the factories. Some of the harmful substances in the smoke may come down with the rain hundreds of miles away.

The rain in many places isn't natural and clean any more. It's full of acid chemicals. When it falls in lakes, it changes them too. The lakes become more acidic. Acid water is like vinegar or lemon juice. It hurts when it gets in your eyes. It also kills the plants and animals that usu­ally live in lake water. That is why the fish are dying in lakes.

But dead fish may be just the beginning of the prob­lem. Scientists are finding other effects of acid rain. In

some large areas trees are dying. Not just one tree here and there, but whole forests. At first scientists couldn't understand why. There were no bugs or diseases in these trees. The weather was not dry. But now they think that the rain was the cause. Acid rain is making the earth more acidic in these areas. Some kinds of trees cannot live in the soil that is very acidic.

THE STARS AND STRIPES

The history of Old Glory goes back to early colonial days. The first banner used in the colonies was, of course, the standard English flag, consisting of a red cross on a white field. The flags of the separate colonies followed the same lines except that occasionally a pine tree, or a hemisphere, was figured in the upper left quarter of the cross.

The beginning of the Revolution brought a flood of suggestions as to the design for a new standard. But it was not until June 14,1777, that official action was tak­en, when the Continental Congress passed a resolution fixing the design as thirteen alternate red and white stripes, and thirteen white stars on a blue field. Each star and each stripe represented a state. As each new state was admitted to the Union, a star and a stripe were add­ed, but it was soon realized that the addition of many more stripes would make the flag too bulky. Consequent­ly, after having been increased to fifteen, the number of bars was reduced to the original number. But the number of stars steadily increased, until the present number of 50 equals the same number of states. The story goes that Betty Ross sewed the first flag, and it was at her sugges­tion that five-pointed, instead of six-pointed, stars were used.

While controversy continues as to why Congress se­lected this design, there is good reason to believe that the coat of arms of the Washington family, which con­tains both stars and stripes, furnished the inspiration.

It is interesting to note that, prior to the adoption of an official flag, a banner frequently used bore the figure of a rattlesnake, coiled to strike, with the motto, «Don»t tread on me.»

WHAT QUALITY MEANS

Even the dictionary finds it difficult to explain the meaning of the word quality. It has to use other words like excellence. Why is quality so hard to define? Is it because it is such an abstract word and can mean so many different things? Or because its meaning depends so much on what it describes? How can you define high qual­ity when applied to the things you buy, for example, a pop record, a pair of shoes, a meal in a restaurant? You'll probably have three different definitions of quality for the three different things. Quality is also hard to define because it can be such a subjective word — it means quite different things to different people, even when they use the word to describe the same tiling. A Pink Floyd album may in your view have quality, but your friend may con­sider that the same album is a waste of good money. Yet another problem is that the meaning of quality changes over the years. Things which you think have quality may not be seen in the same way by older people. Just ask your grandmother what she thinks of the Stones? For exam­ple, consider the two ads. Both advertise clothes for men. Advertisers stress the points which they think sell qual­ity to prospective buyers. The selling points that are stressed in 1897 ad are durability, craftsmanship, de­pendability, tradition. What about the ideas of quality in the present-day ad? Present-day ads do not talk about tradition or craftsmanship, dependability or durability.

They stress the virtues of newness, of being different, sometimes of being way out. Cheapness may be empha­sized too, the fact that almost everyone can afford the product. Does this mean that quality in manufactured goods is disappearing now that most things are mass-pro­duced?

DICTIONARIES

We all know the saying of a wise man who lived more than two thousand years ago: «Of making many books there is no end». If he had been living today, he might have said the same of dictionaries, for several new ones appear every year. They are needed for various purpos­es. Even in our own language we often find it necessary to look up a word, sometimes for the spelling, sometimes for the pronunciation, or it may be for the meaning or origin of the word.

In the twentieth century, with the remarkable increase in scientific and other knowledge, special dictionaries have to be made for special groups of words — commer­cial, technical, psychological, medical etc. There are some very large dictionaries which are supposed to con­tain all the words of the language, but they are not con­venient to use. They are too heavy and take too much room. If you are studying one subject, it is much better to have a dictionary which is no bigger than an ordinary book.

Students of a foreign language need a dictionary which ontains all the words in common use in their own lan-uage and the one they are trying to learn, that is, the ords they are likely to hear in conversation, and on the adio, and those they will meet in the books and newspa-iers they read. Suchdictionaries usually give the mean-ng of aword by translatingit; and, sometimes, butnot always, they give translations of phrases and structures. Dictionaries of this kind are useful to translators, but less useful to earnest students of language than diction­aries which give meanings and explanations and exam­ples in the foreign language itself.

THE ENGLISH ALPHABET

Are you one of those unfortunate people who speak English very well but at once become worried when your teacher asks you to write? Don't be worried. Remember that a lot of English people have the same problem. Near my home there are at least two notices wrongly spelt and a lot of English people who are otherwise quite clever have to use dictionaries. What is wrong with this, for example: «Ould cars bought here»? The problem is this silly spelling, of course. As all those who read, know it just isn't logical.

Why isn 't English spelling logical ? The answer is that it isn't really spelling that is «wrong». Hundreds of years ago the English pronounced wolds as they spelt them. In many cases it is the pronunciation that has changed. Why not change the spelling to fit the new pronunciation? Of course we have thought of that too.

In 1843 Isaac Pitman, who invented shorthand, pro­posed a new alphabet of forty symbols. To make spelling fit pronunciation you need a different symbol for each sound. But you can use the same alphabet with just a few new symbols. Then leaving out silent letters like k in knife you just write the words as they sound. Kat for cat, etc. This is what Pitman wanted to do. Another idea is to use a completely different alphabet — phonetic alphabet.

This what George Bernard Shaw wanted. When he died he left money to pay for this, and in 1962 Androcles the Lion came out in a phonetic alphabet using forty-eight symbols.

But a hundred years after Isaac Pitman the English alphabet hasn 't changed. It would need a lot of money to change it. Think of all the books in schools and libraries and the printing machines. Then too there are those who really like our ridiculous spelling. There is in fact one new alphabet in use, the I. T. A or Initial Teaching Alpha­bet. The idea behind this is that children learn to read more quickly without the problems of English spelling. Reading early is important because by reading we can learn about other things. In many of our schools children learn to read with this new alphabet and learn the old alphabet later.

Some teachers don't like it. They say that the children will never learn to spell «properly».

Meanwhile the latest news is that the Simplified Spell­ing Society of Britain and the Simplified Spelling Asso­ciation of USA have put their hands together. They think that English is becoming the most important language in the world and so we need logical spelling. They hope to publish a book explaining their ideas and proposing another new alphabet of forty-four symbols. The name of the book? «World English».

O. HENRY

O. Henry is the pen-name of the American writer Wil­liam Sydney Porter (1862-1910).

In his youth he changed many professions: he was a cowboy, a reporter, a clerk in a bank; he travelled about America trying to find a job. He met many common peo­ple, and that helped him later in his literary work.

O. Henry is a great master of short story. Common peo­ple, whose life he knew very well, are the main characters of his stories.

Here is a humorous story about two tramps who want­ed to get money by kidnapping the son of rich parents and , demanding a ransom for him.

The Ransom of Red Chief

I

It looked a good thing; but wait till I tell you. We were in the south, in Alabama — Bill and myself. We had about six hundred dollars, and we needed two thousand dollars more and did not know how to get them. It was then that we had that idea of kidnapping someone and demanding a ransom. There was a little town there, which was called Summit. We decided to kidnap the only child of a prom­inent rich man named Ebenezer Dorset. The child was a boy of ten, with bright red hair. Bill and I thought that if we kidnapped him, his father would agree to pay a ran­som of two thousand dollars. But wait till I tell you. About two miles from the town of Summit there was a little mountain, covered with wood. On the slope of the mountain there was a cave. In that cave we stored provisions

In a village three miles away we hired a horse with a little cart. In the evening, after sunset, we drove in that cart past Dorset's house. The boy was in the street. He was throwing stones at a kitten which was sitting on the fence across the street.

«Hey, little boy», said Bill, «would you like a bag of candy and a nice ride?»

The boy threw a stone at Bill and hit him in the eye. That boy fought with us like a bear, but, at last, we put him in the bottom of the cart and drove away. We took him up to the cave.

After dark I drove to the village to return the horse and cart, and then walked back to the mountain.

When I returned, there was a fire burning behind a big rock at the entrance of the cave. Bill was sitting on the grass. The boy was watching a pot of boiling coffee. Two tail-feathers were stuck in his red hair. He pointed a stick at me when I came up and said:

«How cursed pale-face do you dare to enter the camp of Red Chief, the terror of the plains?»

«He is all right now», said Bill. «We're playing Indi­an. I'm Red Chief's captive, and I shall be scalped in the morning».

Yes, sir, that boy was enjoying himself. He liked living in the cave so much, that he had forgotten that he was a captive himself. He immediately named me Snake-eye the Spy, and announced that I should be burnt at sunrise.

Then we had supper; and he filled his mouth full of bacon and bread, and began to talk. He made a long speech, something like this: «I like this very much. I nev­er camped out before. I was nine last birthday. I hate to go to school. Rats ate up sixteen of Jimmy's aunt's hen's eggs. Are there any real Indians in these woods? I want some more bacon. Does the wind blow because the trees move? We had five puppies. Why is your nose so red, Bill? My father has lots of money. Are the stars hot? I don't like girl's. Have you beds in this cave? A parrot can talk, but a monkey or a fish can't».

Every few minutes he remembered that he was a red skin and took his stick, which he called his rifle, and went to the mouth of the cave to see if there were any spies of the pale-faces. Now and then he let out a war-whoop, which made Bill shiver. He was simply terrorized by that boy.

«Red Chief», said I to the boy, « would you like to go home?» «No», said he. «I don't have any fun at home. I hate to go to school. I like to camp out. You won't take me back home, Snake-eye, will you?»

«Not now», said I. «We shall stay here in the cave for some time». «All right», said he. «That'll be fine. I nev­er had such fun in my life».

II

We went to bed about eleven o'clock. We slept on the ground on some blankets. We put Red Chief between us. We were not afraid that he would run away. We could not fall asleep for three hours because every now and then he jumped up and shouted in our ears that the pale-faces were coming. At last I fell asleep and dreamed that I had been kidnapped and tied to a tree by a pirate with red hair.

Just at daybreak I woke up because Bill was screaming. I jumped up to see what the matter was. Red Chief was sit­ting on Bill's chest, holding him by the hair with one hand.

In the other hand he had the sharp knife which we used for cutting bacon. He was trying to take Bill's scalp.

I took the knife from the child and made him lie down again. But Bill could not sleep. I slept a little, but then I woke up. I remembered that Red Chief was going to burn me at sunrise. I was not afraid, but I sat up and lit my pipe.

«Why did you get up so early, Sam?» asked Bill. «Oh, I don't want to sleep», said I.

«That's a lie!» said Bill. «You are afraid. He was go­ing to burn you at sunrise, and you are afraid he will do it. And he will, if he finds a match. Isn't it awful, Sam? Do you think anybody will pay money to get such a boy back home?»

«Of course», said I. «Now you and the Chief get up and cook breakfast, and I shall go to the top of the moun­tain and look around ».

I went up to the top of the little mountain and looked down at the town. I thought there would be many people in the streets, talking about how a boy was kidnapped and how to find, him. But the streets of the little town were quiet, there were almost no people, nobody was ex­cited. «Perhaps», I said to myself, «they don't know yet that a child has been kidnapped».

III

When I came back to the cave, I saw that Bill was standing with his back to the wall, breathing hard. The boy was standing in front of him, ready to strike him with a big stone.

«He put a hot potato down my back», explained Bill, «and then mashed it with his foot; and I boxed his ears. «Have you a gun, Sam?» I took the stone away from the boy. «If you don't be­have, « I said, «I'll take you straight home. Now, are you going to be good or not? »

«It was a joke», said he. «I didn't want to hurt him. I'll behave, Snake-eye, if you don't send me home and if you let me play the Black Scout today».

«I don't know the game», said I. «I'm going away, and you will play with Bill».

I thought that it was time to send a letter to old man Dorset, demanding the ransom and dictating how that ransom must be paid. Bill asked me, with tears in his eyes, to make the ransom fifteen hundred dollars instead of two thousand. I agreed, and we wrote this letter: Ebenezer Dorset, Esq.

We have your boy in a place far from Summit. It is useless for you to try to find him. You can have him back only if you pay a ransom. We demand fifteen hun­dred dollars for his return. If you agree, send the mon­ey tonight at half-past eight o'clock. After crossing the river on the road to P., there are three large trees near a fence. At the bottom of the middle tree your messen­ger will find a small box. The messenger must put the money into that box and, immediately return to Sum­mit.

If you pay the money, your son will be returned to you safe within three hours. If you don't pay the ran­som, you will never see your boy again.

Two Desperate men.

I put the letter into my pocket. As I was going to start, the boy came up to me and said:

«I say», Snake-eye, you said I could play the Black Scout today». «Play it, of course», said I. «Mr. Bill will play with you. What kind of game is it?»

stand it. I took him down the mountain, and showed him the way home, and kicked him. I'm sorry we lose the ran­som ».

som».

«I'm the Black Scout», said Red Chief, «and I must ride to the fort to tell the people there that the Indians are coming. I'm tired of playing Indian myself. I want to be the Black Scout». — «All right», said I. «I think Mr. Bill will help you». «What must I do?» asked Bill, look­ing at the boy. «You are the horse», said the Black Scout. «Get down on your hands and knees. How can I ride to the fort without a horse?»

Bill got down on his hands and knees. In his eyes there was a look that a rabbit has when you catch it in a trap. «How far is it to the fort?» he asked.

as soon as you can».

IV

«Ninety miles», said the Black Scout and jumped on Bill's back. «Please», said Bill to me, «come back, Sam, as soon as you can »-

I went to the village and sent the letter. When I came back to the cave, Bill and the boy were not there. I walked around but did not see them. So I lit my pipe and sat down to wait.

In about half an hour Bill came out of the bushes. Be­hind him was the boy. He was walking noiselessly, like a scout, there was a broad smile on his face. Bill stopped, took off his hat and wiped his face with a red handker­chief. The boy stopped about eight feet behind him. «Sam», said Bill, «I suppose you will be angry, but I couldn 't help it. The boy has gone, I have sent him home». «What's the matter, Bill?» I asked him.

«He rode me», said Bill», «the ninety miles to the fort. Then, when the people were saved, I was given oats. And then, for an hour, I had to try to explain to him why there is nothing in holes, how a road can run both ways, « and what makes the grass green. I tell you, Sam, I could not «Bill», said I, «you have no heart diseases?» «No», said Bill, «why?»

«Then you may turn around», said I, «and see what's behind you». Bill turned and saw the boy. Bill turned pale and sat down on the ground. Then I told him that I had already sent the letter, and that we should get the ran­som and go away by midnight. So Bill cheered up a little and promised the boy that he would play the Russian in the Japanese war with him.

I had a plan to get that ransom without danger. I had to be sure that Mr. Dorset would not send policemen to those trees. So I went to that place beforehand, and at half-past eight I was already sitting in one of those trees. A young man on a bicycle appeared on the road, rode up to the trees, found the box, put a parcel into it and rode away.

I waited an hour and then climbed down. I took the parcel and hurried back to the cave. We opened the par­cel and found a note, which said:

Two Desperate Men.

Gentlemen: I have received your letter in which you demand a ransom for the return of my son. I think you demand, too much, so I make you anotherpropostion, which, I think, you will accept. You bring Johnny home and pay me two hundred and fifty dollars, andl agree to take him back. I advise you to come at night, because the neighbours believe he is lost, and I don't know what they would do to you if they saw that you had brought him back.

Ebenezer Dorset.

«Sam», said Bill, «what's two hundred and fifty dol­lars, after all?. We have the money. One more night with this child will send me to the madhouse».

«To tell you the truth, Bill», said I, «he is getting on my nerves», too. We'll take him home, pay the ransom and go away». We took him home that night. We told him that his father had bought a rifle and a pair of moc­casins for him, and that the next night we should go to hunt bears.

It was just twelve o'clock when we knocked at Eben-ezer's front door. We counted our two hundred and fifty dollars into Dorset's hand.

When the boy understood that we were leaving him at home, he started up a howl and caught hold of Bill's leg. With much difficulty his father tore him off. «How long can you hold him?» asked Bill. «I am not as strong as I was», said old Dorset, «but I think I can promise you ten minutes». «Enough», said Bill.

And though it was very dark, and though Bill was fat, and though I am a good runner, he was a good mile and a half out of Summit before I could catch up with him.

SPREADING THE WORD

Many people say that the British read millions of books, newspapers and magazines each day. Most of us read at least one newspaper a day and often pick up a copy of a book that is being read by hundreds of people, per­haps at the same time in the same language. I wonder how many people stop and think back to that day in the not-so-distant past when the first sheet of printed paper came off the first printing press used in England. That was in the year 1477 when William Caxton brought his printing press from Flanders, set it up at Westminster in the shadow of the old Abbey and set to work to pro­duce the first books in English.

Canterbury Tales by Chaucer, who lived from 1340 to 1400, was among the books he printed, together with many translations from Latin and French.

Canterbury Tales was very popular among the people who could read at that time. These educated people who lived mainly in London could easily understand the lan­guage of Canterbury Tales because it was written in the dialect of London. But people from other parts of Eng­land couldn't understand very much because at that time each county had its own dialect. So the people of Kent, the West Country, the Midlands, London, the North and other parts of England could not easily understand each other.

Because Caxton printed his book in one dialect, the educated English had a common dialect, and as educa­tion spread, this dialect became the language of England.

Of course, if you read one of Caxton's original books you won't understand it very well because of the great changes in English grammar and spelling since Caxton lived. Caxton himself wrote in one of his books about the many changes in his lifetime.

«And certainly our language now vsed varyeth ferre from that whiche was vsed and spoken when I was bourne».

As you can see it varies very much in spelling and structure from the English you are reading, but you cer­tainly recognize it as English of Caxton to whom we owe so much.

THE SKYLIGHT ROOM

(after О Henry)

First Mrs.Parker would show you the double parlours. She would describe the gentleman who had lived here for eight years. Then you would stammer that you were nei­ther a doctor nor a dentist, and Mrs. Parker would give you a cold look.

Next you went up one flight of stairs' and looked at t the second floor room. Again you stammered that you wanted something cheaper.

At last Mrs. Parker would take you to look at Mr. Skid-der's large room on the third floor. Mr. Skidder's room was not vacant. He wrote plays and smoked cigarettes in it all day long. But every person who was looking for a room was made to visit his room to have a look at his cur­tains. After each visit Mr. Skidder, afraid of being turned out, would pay a small part of his rent.

Then — oh, then — if you still stood there, with only three dollars in your pocket, Mrs.- Parker would cry loud­ly the word «Clara!», show you her back and walk down­stairs. Then Clara, the coloured maid, would take you up and show you the Skylight Room.

The room was very small. In it was an iron bed, a wash-stand and a chair. A shelf was the cupboard. Its four bare walls seemed to close jn upon you like the sides of a cof­fin. For a moment you felt you could not breathe. Then

you looked up as from a well — and breathed once more. Through the glass of the little skylight you could see the blue sky. «Two dollars, sir», Clara would say. One day Miss Leeson came to look for a room, She carried a type­writer which was made for a much larger lady. She was a very little girl, with eyes and hair that kept on growing after she had stopped.

Mrs. Parker showed her the double parlours. «In this closet you could keep a skeleton or anaesthetic or coal». « But I am neither a doctor nor a dentist», said Miss Lee­son. Mrs. Parker gave her the cold look she kept for those who were neither doctors nor dentists, and moved to the second floor back room.

«Eight dollars?» said Miss Leeson. «Dear me! I'm just a poor little working girl. Show me something higher and lower».

Mr. Skidder jumped up and dropped his cigarettes when he heard the knock on the door.

«Excuse me, Mr. Skidder», said Mrs. Parker, with her demon's smile. «I didn't know you were in». «I asked the lady to have a look at your curtains». — «They are beau­tiful», said Miss Leeson with a sweet smile.

After they had gone, Mr. Skidder began to replace his tall, black-haired heroine from his latest play by a small, fair, long-haired girl with big eyes.

Soon the call «Clara» was heard. The coloured maid took Miss Leeson up the ladder to the Skylight Room and said: «Two dollars!»

«I'll take it», sighed Miss Leeson, sinking down upon the iron bed.

Every day Miss Leeson went out to work. At night she brought some papers with handwriting on them and made copies with her typewriter. Sometimes she had no workin the evening, and she would sit on the steps of the p_Orch with the other lodgers. Miss Leeson was a sweet, gay Crea­ture. She was kind to everybody. Once she let Mr. Skid­der read to her three acts of his great (unpublished) Com­edy.

The gentlemen lodgers were always pleased when Vq_ss Leeson had time to sit on the steps for an hour or two. But Miss Longnecker, the tall blonde who taugbt at school and said, «Well, really!» to everything you s_aid, sat on the top step and sniffed. And Miss Dorn, who worked in a department store, sat on the bottom step _an(j sniffed. Miss Leeson sat on the middle step and the \n_Gxi would quickly group around her.

Especially Mr. Skidder. And especially Mr. Hooker, who was forty-five, fat, red-faced and foolish. And es­pecially young Mr. Evans. The men said she was the jf_un. niest and jolliest girl they had ever seen, but the laflies on the top step and the lower-step kept on sniffing».

* * *

One summer evening Mrs. Parker's lodgers were ga­ting on the porch when Miss Leeson looked up into the sky and cried gaily:

«Oh, there is Billy Jackson! I can see him from h&_re> too».

All looked up, thinking there was a plane guided by some pilot Jackson. But there was no plane in the sky.

«It's that star», explained Miss Leeson, pointing-w^h a thin finger. I can see it every night through my sty-light. I named it Bill Jackson».

«Well, really I» said Miss Longnecker. «I didn't kn_Ow you were an astronomer, Miss Leeson». «Yes, I am», Miss Leeson.

«Well, really!» said Miss Longnecker. «The star you are pointing to is Gamma, of the constellation Cassio­peia».

« Oh », said Mr. Evans, «I think Billy Jackson is a much better name for it».

«You can't see him very well from down here», said Miss Leeson. «You must see him from my room. You know you can see stars even in the day-time from the bot­tom of a well. At night my room is like a well, and it makes Billy Jackson look like the big diamond pin that Night fastens her gown with ».

* * *

There came a time after that when Miss Leeson brought no papers home to copy. And when she left home in the morning, instead of working, she went from of­fice to office and got cold refusals from office boys. This went on for many days.

One evening she wearily climbed Mrs. Parker's porch at the hour when she always returned from her dinner at the restaurant. But she had had no dinner.

As she entered the hall, Mr. Hoover came up to her. He was pleased there was nobody in the hall. He asked her to marry him. She moved away from him, and caught the balustrade. He tried to take her by the hand and she raised it and struck him weakly on the face. Step by step she went up. She passed Mr. Skidder's door. At last she crawled up the ladder and opened the door of the skylight room. She was too weak to light the lamp or to undress. She fell upon the iron bed, slowly raised her heavy eyelids, and smiled. For Billy Jackson was shining down on her, calm and bright, through the sky­light.

As she lay on her back she tried twice to raise her arm. The third time she touched her lips with two thin fingers and blew a kiss out of the black well. Then her arm fell back.

«Good-bye, Billy», she murmured faintly. «You are millions of miles away. But you kept where I could *pe you most of the time, when there wasn't anything else but darkness around me. Millions of miles... Good-bye, Billy Jackson».

Clara, the coloured maid, found the door locked at ten next morning, and they forced it open. The girl was un­conscious and someone ran to phone for an ambulance». Soon it arrived, and a young doctor, in his white linen coat, quick and active, climbed the steps. «Ambulance call to 49», he said. «What's the trouble?». «Oh, yes, doctor», sniffed Mrs. Parker. She was not pleased that there was trouble in the house. «I can't understand what can be the matter with her. She is unconscious and we can't bring her to. It's a young woman, Miss Elsie Lee­son. Never before in my house—»

«What room?» cried the doctor in a terrible voice. Mrs. Parker had never heard such a voice before. «The skylight room. It —"

Evidently the ambulance doctor knew the way to sky­light rooms. He.ran up the stairs, four at a time». Mrs. Parker followed slowly; she was not used to hurrying. On the first landing she met the doctor who was coming back. He was carrying the astronomer in his arms. He stopped for a moment and said something to Mrs. Park­er that was evidently not very pleasant to hear.

The ambulance doctor walked with his burden through the crowd of curious gapers that had gathered in the street. His face was pale and grave.

They noticed that he did not lay down the girl upon the bed in the ambulance, and that all he said to the driv­er was: «Drive like hell!»

That is all. In the next morning's newspaper I saw a little item, and the last sentence of it may help you (as it helped me) to understand the story better.

«A young woman has been brought to Bellevue Hospi­tal from No. 49... Street. She is suffering from debility caused by starvation. The ambulance doctor William Jackson who attended the case, says the patient will re­cover» .

WALTER SCOTT

The famous English writer Walter Scott (1771 — 1832) is the founder of the historical novel in English literature. He was greatly interested in the past of his country and studied it by documents, history and legends.

Among the historical novels of Waiter Scott Ivanhoe is one of the best. It describes the even ts of the 12th cen­tury during the reign of Richard I the Zion-Hearted. The power in England at that time was in. the hands of the Normans, who oppressed the native Anglo-Saxon popula­tion. There were serious conflicts between the Anglo-Sax­on nobility and the Normans. In his novel Walter Scott wanted to show how, as years passed, the Anglo-Saxons and the Normans became one nation.

Ivanhoe

Parti

In that pleasant district of merry England which lies on both sides of the river Don, in old times there was a large forest. Parts of this forest still exist. It was the home of the brave outlaws, who were so popular.

Our story describes the time towards the end of the reign of Richard I, when he was abroad. The barons, in the king's absence, strengthened their castles and acted like little kings. Prince John, the king's brother, with the help of the barons, tried to seize the tftrone. Common people were cruelly oppressed.

A hundred years had passed since the Conquest of England by-Duke William of Normandy. But in these hundred years the language and the interests of the Nor­mans and Anglo-Saxons were not yet united. These two peoples remained enemies. Only a few of the Saxon princ­es were still masters of the land which had belonged to their fathers. After the Conquest, William the Conquer­or had taken the greater part of the land from its Saxon owners and given it to the Norman barons. At court and in the castles of the great nobles Norman-French was the only language spoken. Anglo-Saxon was spoken only by common people and the few remaining Saxon nobles who had not yet bent under the Norman rule.

The sun was setting upon one of the glades of that for­est which we have spoken about. There were two men in the glade. The elder of these men had a serious look. He was wearing a long shirt made of the skin of some ani­mal, and reaching down to his knees. On his feet he had sandals. Round his neck there was a metal ring, like a dog's collar; on the ring there were such words: «Gurth», the born slave of Cedric of Rotherwood». Gurth was a swineherd.

The other man was sitting on the ground beside Gurth. He looked about ten years younger. His clothes, in form, were like those of his companion, but his shirt was of better materials and of brighter colours. Over his shirt he was wearing a short red cloak. Round his neck there^ was a collar of the same metal, with these words: « Wamba the born slave of Cedric of Rotherwood». On his head he had a cap with bells round it. This cap, and his bright clothes, showed that he was a domestic jester.

The swineherd looked serious and sad. Wamba's eyes were merry. The two men were talking in Anglo-Saxon, ui-iuivjuiuMi' С

which, as we said before, was spoken by all common peo­ple, except the Norman soldiers. Gurth, with the help of his dog, was trying to gather his swine together, but could not.

«Stand up, Wamba, if you are a man», he said, «and help me, or wolves on two legs will catch some of them before night».

«Really», said Wamba without standing up, «I have asked my legs, and they think that it is not good for me to run about and cover my wonderful clothes with dust. That's why, Gurth, Г advise you to leave the herd alone: because if they meet a group of travelling soldiers, or of outlaws, the only thing that can happen to them is that they will be turned into Normans before morning».

«The swine will be turned into Normans!» repeated Gurth. «Explain that to me, Wamba, I don't understand you».

«Why, what do you call these animals which are run­ning about on-their four legs?» asked Wamba.

«Swine, fool, swine», said the herd, «every fool knows that». «And swine is a good Anglo-Saxon word», said the jester; «but what do you call the swine when it is killed and washed and cut into pieces and cooked?» «Pork», answered the swineherd.

«I am very glad every fool knows that too», said Wamba, «and pork, I think, is a Norman-French word. And so, when this animal lives, and a Saxon slave takes care of it, it goes by its Anglo-Saxon name; but when it is carried to the dinner-table in the castle, it becomes a Nor­man and is called pork, what do you think of this, friend Gurth, ha?» «It is true, friend Wamba. How did it get into your fool's head?» «I can tell you more», said Wamba in the same tone; «the old Ox goes by its Anglo-Saxon name while serfs like you take care of it; but becomes a Nor­man and is called Beef when it arrives at table».

«You speak sad truths», answered Gurth. «Little is left to us, except the air which we breathe. All that is best goes to the Normans» our bravest men become their soldiers and go to die in distant lands; very few remain here who have either the will or the power to protect the poor Saxons. God bless our Master Cedric; he always stands by us. Here, here! Well done!» he exclaimed, as his dog appeared driving the swine before it. «You have gathered all of them now! Now, quick, Wamba, because a terrible storm of thunder and lightning is coming. Let's hurry home before the storm begins, because the night will be terrible».

And they walked quickly down the forest path, driv­ing the swine before them.

II

Gurth and Wamba were soon overtaken by a group of ten horsemen, two of which seemed to be important per­sons, and the others their servants,

One of the important persons was a monk of high rank dressed in rich clothes. His companion was a man over forty, thin, strong and tall, with a very sunburnt face. He had a long red cloak over his shoulders, with a white cross on it. Under it he was wearing a chain.

In the first of the two horsemen Gurth and Wamba recognized Prior Ayrner, of the nearest Abbey, a rich Norman, well-known in the neighborhood. But they did not know his companion and were surprised that he looked half a monk, half a soldier.

«My children», said the Prior to Gurth and Wamba, «we are looking for a place where we and our servants

could spend the night. Can you show us the way to the house of Cedric the Saxon?»

«It will be difficult to find the road», said Gurth, «and the family of Cedric go to bed early».

«You must tell us the way», said the Prior. «This rev­erend brother is of the order of Knights Templars; he is half a monk, half a soldier. He has been afl his life fight­ing with the Saracens. It will soon be night, and we are tired and hungry».

«Well, then», said Wamba, «you must ride along this path till you come to a cross; four paths, meet at that cross; you take the path to the left, and I think you will reach the house of Cedric of Rotherwood before the storm begins».

The Prior thanked him, and the group rode quickly on. When they disappeared, Gurth said to Wamba, «If they go as you have told them, I think they will not reach Rotherwood this night». «I think not», said Wamba smil­ing, «and it will be good». «You are right», said Gurth. «It will be bad enough if Prior Ayrner sees the Lady Ro-wena, and it will be worse if Cedric quarrels with this military monk».

II

As the horsemen were moving on, they talked in Nor­man-French, the language used by the upper classes.

«What do you call the man to whose house we are rid­ing?» said the Templar to his companion.

«Cedric of Rotherwood», answered the Prior, «and remember: he is very proud. He stands up for his Sax­ons' so sternly, that he is called by everybody Cedric the Saxon».

«This Lady Rowena, his daughter, is very beautiful, I think?» said the Templar.

«Cedric is not her father», replied the Prior, «she is his distant relation; he is her guardian, and loves her as his own child. She is really very beautiful, you will see it yourself. But be careful, brother Brian», how you look at Rowena and how you talk to her: if Cedric the Saxon does not like it, we are lost men. People say that he turned his own son out of the house because the young¹ man fell in love with her. But here is the cross, and the night is so dark, that it is very difficult to see the paths. Which way did he tell us to turn? To the left?» «To the right», said Brian. «To the left, I think», said the Prior.

They were in a difficulty, but here they noticed a young man sleeping at the foot of the cross. They woke him up and asked if he could tell them the way to Rother-wood.

«I am going there myself», said the stranger. «I know the way very well, and if you give me a horse, I can be your guide».

Приложение 3

A horse was given to the stranger, and he led the group along a path through the forest. The way was difficult, they had to cross some streams and turn in many places, but at last they came to a wide road, at the end of which they saw a large low building. The young man pointed to it and said, «ThisisRotherwood, the house of Cedric the Saxon».

НАИБОЛЕЕ УПОТРЕБИТЕЛЬНЫЕ НАРЕЧИЯ

Наречия места и направления: here — здесь, тут there — там somewhere — где-то, где-нибудь anywhere — везде, повсюду, где-нибудь nowhere — нигде inside — внутри outside — снаружи . down — внизу back — сзади, назад away — вдали, вон, прочь downward — вниз upward — вверх	Наречия времени: now — сейчас, теперь before — до, перед, прежде ever — когда-либо never — никогда always — всегда often — часто usually — обычно seldom — редко still — все-еще already — уже just — только-что, только yet — еще, уже sometimes — иногда today — сегодня tomorrow — завтра yesterday — вчера recently — недавно lately — в последнее время commonly — обычно
Наречия образа действия: slowly — медленно quickly — быстро easily — легко calmly — спокойно brightly — ярко hardly — с трудом, едва	Наречия меры и степени: much — много, сильно little — немного, мало enough — достаточно too — слишком almost — уже, почти very — очень

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