Further over-riding concepts

Другие важные принципы

Materiality (существенность)

Accounting does not serve a useful purpose if the effort of recording a transaction in a certain way is not worthwhile (нецелесообразно). Thus, if a box of paper-clips was bought it would be used up over a period of time, and this cost is used up every time someone uses a paper-clip. It is possible to record this as an expense every time it happens, but obviously the price of a box of paper-clips is so little that it is not worth recording it in this fashion. The box of paper-clips is not a material (малостоящий) item, and therefore would be charged as an expense (будет отнесена на затраты) in the period it was bought, irrespective of the fact that it could last for more than one accounting period. In other words do not waste your time in the elaborate recording of trivial items.

Similarly, the purchase of a cheap metal ashtray would also be charged as an expense in the period it was bought because it is not a material item, even though it may in fact last for twenty years. A motor lorry would however be deemed to be a material (дорогостоящий) item, and so, an attempt is made to charge each period with the cost consumed (израсходованной) in each period of its use.

Firms fix all sorts of arbitrary rules (совершенно произвольные правила) to determine what is material and what is not. There is no law that lays down what these should be, the decision as to what is material and what is not is dependent upon judgment. A firm may well decide that all items under $100 should be treated as expenses in the period which they were bought even though they may well be in use in the firm for the following ten years. Another firm, especially a large one, may fix the limit of $1,000. Different limits may be set for different types of item.

It can be seen that the size and the type of firm will affect the decisions as to which items are material. With individuals, an amount of $1,000 may well be more than you, as a student, possess. For a multi-millionaire as to what is a material item and what is not will almost certainly not be comparable. Just as individuals vary then so do firms. Some firms have a great deal of machinery and may well treat all items of machinery costing less than $1,000 as not being material, whereas another firm which makes about the same amount of profits, but has very little machinery, may well treat a $600 machine as being a material item as they have fixed their limit at $250.

Prudence (осмотрительность)

Very often an accountant has to make a choice as to which figure he will take for a given item (величина конкретной статьи). The prudence concept means that normally he will take the figure which will understate rather than overstate the profit. Alternatively, this could be expressed as choosing the figure which will cause the capital of the firm to be shown at a lower amount rather than at higher one. This could also be said to be to make sure that all losses are recorded in the books.

It was probably this concept that led to accountants being portrayed as being rather miserable by nature (скряги); they were used to favoring looking on the black side of things and ignoring the bright side. However, the concept has seen considerable changes in the last few decades, and there has been a shift along the scale away the gloomy view and more towards the desire to paint a brighter picture when it is warranted (когда существуют определенные гарантии).

The use of the term “prudence” for this concept started in the 1970s. Prior to that it had always be known as “conservatism”, and this latter term will still be found in quite a lot of literature concerning accounting.

Consistency (постоянство)

The concepts already listed are so broad that in fact there are many different ways in which items may be recorded in the accounts. Each firm should, within these limits, select the methods which give the most equitable picture (наиболее объективное представление) of the activities of the business. However, this cannot be done if one method is used in one year and another method in the next year and so on. Constantly changing the methods would lead to a distortion of the profits calculated from the accounting records. Therefore the concept of consistency comes into play (вступает в действие). This concept is that when a firm has once fixed a method of the accounting treatment of an item it will enter all similar items that follow in exactly the same way.

However, it does not bind the firm to following the method until the firm closes down. A firm can change the method used, but such a change is not affected without the deepest considerations. When such a change occurs and the profits calculated in that year are affected by a material amount, then either in the profit and loss account itself or in one of the reports accompanying it, the effect of the change should be stated.

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