Unit2 The Natural World. Plants and Animals
УДК 811.111(075.8)
ББК Ш 143. 21 – 923
А3 Г 525
Глазунова И.А. Английский язык. Учебно-методическое пособие для студентов биологических специальностей и направлений. Тюмень: Издательство Тюменского государственного университета, 2008, 110 с.
Учебно-методическое пособие предназначено для обучения английскому языку студентов биологического факультета, их аудиторной и самостоятельной работы. Основной целью пособия является дальнейшее совершенствование языковых навыков и умений, а так же освоение лексического запаса, необходимого для чтения и понимания специальной литературы.
Тексты пособия подобраны с учётом специфики данной специальности.
Пособие состоит из двух частей.
Печатается по решению кафедры иностранных языков естественных факультетов.
ОТВЕТСТВЕННЫЙ РЕДАКТОР: Л.В. Скороходова, ст. преподаватель кафедры иностранных языков естественных факультетов ТюмГУ
РЕЦЕНЗЕНТЫ: Л.В. Скороходова, ст. преподаватель кафедры иностранных языков естественных факультетов ТюмГУ
Г.П. Гавриличева,ст. преподаватель кафедры иностранных языков ИИиПН ТюмГУ
© ГОУ ВПО Тюменский государственный университет, 2008.
© Издательство Тюменского государственного университета, 2008.
© И.А. Глазунова
ПОЯСНИТЕЛЬНАЯ ЗАПИСКА
Настоящее учебно-методическое пособие предназначено для студентов биологического факультета на втором этапе обучения английскому языку.
Цель учебника – дальнейшее совершенствование языковых навыков и умений, а также освоение лексического запаса, необходимого для чтения и понимания специальной литературы.
Пособие соответствует требованиям «Программы по английскому языку для неязыковых специальностей высших учебных заведений».
Учебник состоит из двух частей. Первая из них – основная. Она включает в себя четыре раздела, тематика которых подобрана с учетом интересов и наклонностей студентов, что повышает мотивацию их обучения.
Структура каждого раздела представлена предтекстовыми упражнениями, текстами и послетекстовыми упражнениями. Предтекстовые упражнения подготавливают обучаемых к пониманию информации данной в тексте, упражнения после текста помогают студентам усвоить лексико-грамматический материал, а также выполняют функцию контроля навыков и умений чтения, перевода и устной речи.
При организации грамматического материала автор пособия руководствовался программными требованиями, опираясь, прежде всего, на частотность употребления грамматических конструкций в научной литературе по биологии на английском языке. Грамматический материал представлен в виде таблиц, несомненно, нуждающихся в некоторых комментариях преподавателя, и тренировочных упражнений, многие из которых могут быть использованы в аудиторной и самостоятельной деятельности студентов.
Во второй части учебного пособия, руководствуясь принципом дифференцированного обучения, автор предлагает дополнительные тексты различной степени сложности с последующими упражнениями, распределенными по разделам и имеющими своей целью дальнейшее развитие лексико-грамматических навыков студентов.
В конце учебного пособия размещается словарь, предполагающий необходимость обучающихся пользоваться также и электронными, и специальными словарями для биологов.
Contents
PART I
Unit1 Biology as the Science of Life Grammar: the Passive Voice
Unit2 The Natural World. Plants and Animals
Grammar: the Infinitive
Unit 3 The Classifications of Living Things
Grammar: the Gerund
Unit 4 The Cell
Grammar: the Participle
PART II Supplementary Reading
Unit 1.
Unit 2.
Unit 3.
Unit 4.
Vocabulary
Bibliography ………………………………………………………………
PART I
UNIT 1
Biology as the Science of Life
Reading and Speaking
1.1 You are going to read the text about biology, check the meaning and pronunciation of the words in the dictionary.
Science, scientific, biology, biological, construction, function, information, contribution, method, to control, cure, vaccine, penicillin, sulfa, solution, value, mankind, to increase, variety, disease, prevention, microscope, laboratory, accurate, observation, experiment, explanation, solution.
Read the text once more and match the following words from A to their meanings from B.
A B
1. living thing a) a quality of not being the same
2. to discover b) growing crops
3. to contribute c) to rescue, to keep from danger or harm
4. variety d) a plant or animal
5.farming e) to have as its result
6. to solve f) to obtain knowledge of something
7. disease g) the process of solving the problem
8. to save h) to help to bring about
9. to prevent i) to find the answer to a problem
10. to cure j) to keep from happening
11. to lead k) an unhealthy condition
12. solution l) to restore to health
A B
To exist living
Immense to name
To form certain
To need basic
Vital to require
To call to live
Definite great, huge
Fundamental to build
The Passive Voice
The hunterkilledthe snake.
The snakewas killedby the hunter.
Сводная таблица времён to be + Participle Il (worked/written)
| Present | Past | Future | Future - in the - Past | |
| Indefinite (Simple) | to be planted | |||
| am is — planted are | was planted were | shall be planted will | should be planted would | |
| Continuous (Progres-sive) | to be being planted | |||
| am is — being planted are | was being planted were | — | — | |
| Perfect | to have been planted | |||
| have been planted has | had been planted | shall have been will planted | should have been would planted |
Read about three animals. These animals live in different parts of the world and in very different habitats, but they have one very important thing in common. Match the texts with the names of the animals (the Mediterranean monk seal, the African elephant, the Blue Whale).
Text A
This is the largest animal, which has ever lived. It is three times heavier than the biggest dinosaur. Once there were over 200 000 of these creatures living in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. However since the seventeenth century they have been hunted for their oil and meat. In fact, so many of them were killed that by 1963 their population had been reduced to just 1000. Today it is even less than that. This animal is protected by international law, but it is still being hunted. Many people believe that it will soon be extinct.
Text B
This is the world's largest land animal. In 1970 there were about 3.3 million of them living in the wild. Since then enormous numbers of them have been killed for their tusks, which are used to make ornaments and jewellery. Today there are fewer than one million of these animals left. Even though they are now protected, they are still being hunted. Between 50000 and 150000 of them are killed every year. Hunting is not the only human activity, which puts them in danger. Many of them are also losing their natural habitat as forests are cut down and grasslands are cleared.
Text C
For centuries this animal was often seen on the beaches around Greece, Turkey, Italy, Morocco and a number of other countries. However, in more recent years it has been put in great danger by human activity. It has been tightened away from the beaches by tourists. It has been hunted for its skin, oil and meat. It has also been killed by fishermen to stop it eating too many fish. Today there are fewer than 500 of these animals left. They are protected in many countries, but they are still being hunted. Many scientists believe there is a real danger that these creatures will not survive much longer.
UNIT 2
Reading and Speaking
A B
To lay eggs кормить молоком
To grow babies растить детенышей
To feed on milk откладывать яйца
THE WORLD AROUND US
a)… cover about one seventh of the earth's land area. Though it's extremely hot and dry there, deserts are home to a rich variety of plants and animals that have their own strategies for coping with the harsh conditions.
The desert holly, for example, draws up b)… from the ground and releases it onto its leaves. The white salt covers the c)… entirely and helps to reflect some of the daytime heat, in much the same way that white clothes do for humans.
The huge saguaro cactus can live for more than 200 years. This is partly due to its ability to d)… and store water. A giant of the cactus world, the saguaro is a slow grower but it can reach heights of up to 50 feet and weigh as much as 8 tons.
Like plants, deserts e)… are also well equipped to deal with the conditions. The road runner has a long tail, which helps to keep the bird from f)…. It uses the tail very much like a parasol, erecting it over its head to create shade, thus enabling it to keep cool. Birds, of course, also have their g)… to help them. In other, cooler parts of the world, feathers serve to keep body heat in. In the desert, though, their main function is to keep external heat out, and as a result many birds can spend long periods unharmed in the hot desert h)… Mammals tend to avoid the sun, usually coming out only after i)… has fallen. The jack rabbit in America and the fennec fox in the Sahara, however, do go out during the daytime. Their protection against the heat is a pair of extremely large j)…. As well as enabling them to hear better, the ears contain blood vessels which are so close to the surface of the skin that any air, blowing across them, cools the blood that runs through them.
The most archetypal of desert animals, the camel, has a number of useful techniques and devices. Their nose is equipped with k)…, which enable them to close one or both of their nostrils and keep the sand out during sandstorms. Their feet have only two toes which are connected by skin. This spreads out as they walk on soft sand and deeps them from sinking into it. They can also retain vast quantities of water in their stomachs – not their l)… as many people think. As a result they can go without drinking anything for four times longer than a donkey and ten times as long as a man.
2.7 Read and correct the sentences:
1. Deserts are home to plants only.
2. The huge saguaro cactus draws up salt from the ground and releases it onto its leaves.
3. The road runner has long ears, which help to keep the animal from overheating.
4. Mammals tend to lie in the sun all day long.
5. Only the humps and nostrils help the camel not to sink into the sand.
2.8 Speak on a) the variety and plant and animal life in deserts; and b) how some desert plants and animals manage to survive in the harsh conditions of the desert.
A B
Monotremes сумчатые
Marsupials зимняя спячка
Hirbernation яйцекладущие
A B
To heat To make or become hot or warm
To cool To give out sweat
To break down (food) To make or become cool
To supply (energy) To live or exist longer
To insulate To reduce to constituent parts
To sleek To cover or protect (a thing) with a
substance that prevents something of the loss of heat
To sweat To make sleek by smoothing
To pant To give or provide with something
To pull erect To breathe with short quick breaths
To shiver To stand on end, upright, vertical
To survive To tremble slightly especially with cold
or fear
To torpor To be in a sluggish and inactive condition
Mammals
A mammal is an endothermic, “warm-blooded”, animal whose body is “heated from inside” and stays much the same temperature, no matter how hot or cold the surroundings.
When a mammal’s body breaks down food and oxygen in order to build new tissue and to supply energy, heat is produced. Hair, which grows out of the mammal’s skin, and fat, which lies under it, help insulate the mammal’s body against heat loss.
If the mammal becomes too hot, it cools itself by sleeking down its hair, sweating, panting or moving to a cool place. If the mammal becomes too cold, goosebumps pull its hair erect, it shivers to make extra body heat, and moves to a warmer place.
Monotremes have a normal body temperature of 30 degrees C. Marsupials average 35 degrees C, while human (which is also a mammal) body temperature is normally about 37 degrees C.
Desert mammals often have big ears and rangy bodies. The large skin area loses heat fast.
Mammals which live in cold places have compact bodies and thick fur. Insulating fat beneath their skin can be used by the body as a food source in very cold weather.
Some animals, like small bats and echidnas, survive cold by going into a short-term resting state called torpor, or a longer “sleep” called hibernation.
2.13 Answer the questions:
1. Why is a mammal an endothermic animal?
2. How is heat produced in the mammal’s body?
3. What does the mammal do if it’s too hot or too cold?
4. Is the body temperature of monotremes different from that of marsupials?
5. Why do desert animals often have rangy bodies?
6. What kind of bodies do mammals living in cold places have?
7. Why do they insulate fat beneath their skins?
8. How do some animals survive in cold?
2.14 Translate the following words into Russian. Then complete the columns:
A B
Names of trees: Names of flowers:
Oak, rose, willow, daffodil, forget-me-not, elm, violet, lilac, daisy, orchid, buttercup, bluebell, fir, carnation, pine, poppy, dandelion, lily, birch, maple.
НЕЛИЧНЫЕ ФОРМЫ ГЛАГОЛА
Сводная таблица употребления инфинитива, герундия и причастия в простой и перфектной формах действительного и страдательного залогов
| Active | Passive |
| Инфинитив | |
| I like to study. Я люблю заниматься | These books are to be studied this year. Эти книги нужно изучать в этом году. |
| Герундий | |
| I like studying. Я люблю заниматься | They do not know about that article being studied by him. Они не знают, что он изучает эту статью. |
| Причастие | |
| The man studying this map is our best student. Человек, изучающий эту карту, наш лучший студент. Studying this material, I found some interesting facts. Изучая этот материал, я нашел несколько интересных фактов | The book being studied by him has just been published. Книга, которую он изучает, только что вышла из печати. Being studied by many students, this material is well known to our group. Так как этот материал изучают многие студенты, он хорошо известен в нашей группе. |
Простая форма инфинитива, герундия, причастия показывает, что действие, выраженное ими, совпадает во времени с действием, выраженным глаголом в личной форме, т. е. сказуемым.
| Perfect | |
| Active | Passive |
| Инфинитив | |
| I am glad to have studied all the necessary articles. Я рад, что изучил все необходимые статьи. | I thought this book to have been studied by all students of our group. Я думал, что эту книгу изучили все студенты нашей группы. |
| Герундий | |
| I wasn't aware of his having studied this book in the previous term. Я не знал, что он изучил эту книгу в предыдущем семестре | I was not aware of this book having been studied by him in the previous term. Я не знал, что эта книга была изучена им в предыдущем семестре. |
| Причастие | |
| Having studied the report I sent it back. Изучив доклад, я отослал его обратно. | Having been studied by all of us the report was approved После того, как все мы изучили доклад, он был одобрен. |
Перфектная форма инфинитива, герундия или причастия показывает, что действие, выраженное ими, предшествует действию, выраженному глаголом в личной форме, т. е. сказуемым. Переводится глаголом в форме прошедшего времени, инфинитивом или деепричастием совершенного вида.
The Infinitive
| Инфинитив без ”to” - после модальных глаголов; - после: to let, to make; - после : would rather , had better ,“would sooner; - в Complex Object после: to see, to watch, to hear, to feel, etc. |
Формы инфинитива
| Active | Passive | |
| Indefinite | To plant | To be planted |
| Continuous | To be planting | - |
| Perfect | To have planted | To have been planted |
| Perfect Continuous | To have been planting | - |
Unit 3
Reading and Speaking
3.1 You are going to read the text about the classification of plants and animals, check the meaning and pronunciation of the words in the dictionary if necessary:
Medicine, classification, sort, tiger, group, leopard, structure, actively, mollusk, effect, detail, utilize, foundation, microorganism, type, cultural, contribution, include, pierce, cause, tear, claw, capture.
ANIMALS AND PLANTS
No one knows how many different kinds of plants and animals there are. Many of them provide us with food, clothing, shelter and medicines. Some, including several kinds of insects, pierce our skin and feed on the blood.
Others, both plants and animals, even live and grow inside our bodies. In this way they may cause disease. You can see why scientists study living things with great care. Our lives may depend on how much we have learned about the living things around us.
As there are so many different kinds of plants and animals, the task of the biologists is not an easy one. To keep track of the great number of living things a system of classification has been set up. Plants and animals are sorted into groups according to the way they are built. For example, the tiger, the leopard, and the lion will be all grouped together. All of them belong to the cat family. All the members of the cat family, in turn, belong to a larger group that includes such meat-eating animals as the dog the bear. They have teeth that are built for tearing and cutting flesh. Their sharp claws help them to capture and eat their prey. In this way, all plants and animals were classified by their structure. All living plants and animals were divided into three kingdoms: the animal kingdom and the plant kingdom and the fungi.
Among the smallest and simplest living things there are some that are difficult to classify. There are tiny plant-like cells that can swim about actively in the water. In some cases, the classification of these is still in doubt.
The animal kingdom, as we have seen, includes many thousands of different animals. Scientists classify them further as follows:
Animal kingdom
A. Invertebrates (Animals without backbones)
1. One-celled animals (Protists)
2. Sponges
3. Cup animals (jelly-fishes and corals)
4. Spiny-skinned animals (star-fishes and their relatives)
5. Worms
6. Mollusks (oysters, snails, squids)
7. Jointed-legged animals (lobsters, spiders, insects)
a) crustations
b) ticks
B. Vertebrates (Animals with backbones)
1. Fishes
2. Amphibians (Frogs, toads, salamanders)
3. Reptiles (Snakes, lizards and turtles)
4. Birds
5. Mammals
The plant kingdom includes tiny one-celled plants that can be seen only with a powerful microscope and the great redwood and sequoia trees of the Pacific coast, the oldest and the largest living things on earth.
Down through the ages, man has relied upon plants for many of his needs. The beauty of plants enriches our lives. Most important of all is the fact that the other living things in our world could not exist very long without their plant neighbours.
Some plants have no roots, stems or leaves. Some of them consist of only one cell. Others, like the giant seaweeds may be more than 100 feet long. They are divided into the following groups:
Plant kingdom
1. Algae
2. Lichens
3. Bryophytes
4. Ferns
5. Licopodii
6. Horsetails
7. Gymnosperms
8. Flowery plants
The third kingdom is the fungi. They have no chlorophyll. They must get their food from other plants and animals.
WHAT IS A MAMMAL?
A 1)... is an animal which has a backbone and whose well-developed 2)... is protected by a skull. Its heart has four chambers which separate fresh from used 3).... Using the heat generated in its body, a mammal keeps its 4)... temperature much the same no matter what the 5)... of its surroundings. The hair which grows from a mammal's 6)... acts as insulation to help this. All 7).. have mammary glands, which in female mammals develop so that they can feed their young ones on 8)... . Mammals have four limbs, which may be adapted for swimming or, in bats, for 9)….
3.20 Match each of these parts of body (a-d) to an animal from the box.
| Horse, bird, cat, fish |
a) feathers, beak, wings: ... c) whiskers, paws, fur: ...
b) gills, scales, fin: ... d) hooves, tail, mane: ...
3.21 Read the text and find the main differences on the three kinds of mammals.
Monotremes lay soft-shelled eggs. The tiny young which hatches from a monotreme egg is naked, blind and has undeveloped hindlimbs. It uses its forelimbs to drag itself to its mother's belly, where it suckles on a patch where milk oozes onto the skin. The Short-beaked Echidna has a pouch, the Platypus does not.
Marsupials give birth to tiny young which are naked, blind and have undeveloped hindlimbs. The baby uses its forelimbs to drag itself to one of its mother's nipples, where it attaches itself. Here, it suckles milk and completes its development. It may be protected by a pouch, or by folds of skin.
Placental mammals keep their young ones inside their bodies until they are well-developed. This is possible because a placenta links the blood vessels of mother and baby and prevents the mother's body from rejecting the baby. Once born, the baby suckles milk from its mother's nipples when it is hungry.
Grammar: The Gerund
Герундий – это неличная форма глагола с окончанием ing. Герундий имеет свойства глагола и существительного.
| Формы герундия | ||
| Active | Passive | |
| Indefinite | planting | Being planted |
| Perfect | Having planted | Having been planted |
| Герундий ставится после: 1.To avoid, to admit, to appreciate, to consider, to delay, to deny, to detect, to enjoy, to explain, to fancy, to finish, to forgive, to imagine, to help(on), to mention, to mind, to miss, to pardon, to postpone, to put off, to stop, to give up, to go on, to suggest, to resent. Hepostponed writing his research work. 2. To agree to, to accuse of, to approve of, to be afraid of, to consist of, to complain of, to prevent from, to succeed in, to persist in, to be engaged in, to spend in, to result in, to hear of, to suspect of, to inform of, to give up the idea of, to think of, to be capable of, to be fond of, to be proud of, to insist on, to depend on, to object to, to be surprised at. Students are engaged in studying various subjects. 3. To feel like, to be for, to be against, can’t help, can’t avoid, can’t afford. 4 It is (of) no use; it is useless; it is no good. |
| Герундий может употребляться после: 1. About, without, after, by, in, on, of, at, for, to, besides, apart from, before, with. 2. существительного в притяжательном падеже или местоимения. He complains of my working too slowly. Он жалуется, что я работаю слишком медленно. |
| Герундий в форме Active употребляется после: to need, to want, to require, worth (стоящий). The book is worth reading. |
UNIT 4
The Cell
Reading and Speaking
Complete the sentences
1. The cell is …
2. The name was given …
3. The cork slice reminded him …
4. The microscopic studies of … brought …
5. … lead to the cell theory.
6. It stated that …
4.7 Read and translate the following text without a dictionary and guess the meaning of the underlined words:
Very little can be seen in living cells with the ordinary light microscope. The structure of the cells has been made visible by various procedures: killing the cells, fixing their components in a stable condition, and staining these components so that their structural details may be observed. Cell material was embedded in a substance, which can be cut in very thin sections for viewing. The development of the light microscope has been paralleled by the development of method for preparing cells for study. By 1920 all the major components of cell which can be demonstrated with the light microscope have been described.
4.8 Read the text and fill in the gaps, using the words below:
| a) Microscope, b) cells, c) tissues, d) glands, e) formation, f) special work, g) nerve, h) organs. |
What can you see when you examine different organs under the 1)…? One thing will quickly stand out. No matter what part of the body you examine, you will find 2)….They are the smallest living units of the body just as bricks are the smallest units of a brick wall. Like other animal cells, each has cytoplasm, a nucleus and a thin cell membrane. The cells of the body are built in such a way that they can do their 3)… best. For example muscle cells are long and elastic. 4)… cells are very sensitive. They have many branches which connect with other nerve cells or with muscles or 5)….
Cells are so tiny that countless numbers of them go into the 6)… of our bodies. Our body consists of many different kinds of cells. These cells make up our tissue, which make up the 7)…. A tissue is nothing more than a group of similar cells all doing the same job. We have nerve, muscle, bone and blood 8)… among others.
4.9 Translate the following passages and entitle them:
1. Cells, as seen under the light microscope or the electron microscope, are exceedingly complex structures. We find that these cellular arrangements have a functional significance and that specific cellular structures are associated with specific chemical components and specific biochemical properties. Surrounding the nucleus of the cell is the cytoplasm. Embedded within the cytoplasmic sap may be distinguished such structures as mitochondria, a network of partitions from which microsomes are derived, secretory granules and other inclusions, each being with a complex interns structure of its own. The cell is surrounded by a cell membrane.
2. The cell membrane is the surface of separation between the cell and its surrounding fluid; it may or not be differentiated histologically. In the region of the surface, or in the membrane itself, are complex enzyme systems, maintained from within the cell, actively transferring substances from the environment into the cell, actively extruding substances out of the cell.
3. The cell nucleus is the largest and densest of the structures isolated from an animal cell. A surrounding membrane regulates the exchange of materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Within the nucleus can be seen spherical nucleoli and the chromatin threads which carry genes. The units of hereditary control are arranged along them. The characteristic compounds of nuclei is deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA carrying by virtue of their chemical structure, the genetically inherited information required for he maintenance of the whole cell.
Cell components
Extensive knowledge of the cell and its parts has been gained from the highly developed techniques of microscopy and cell chemistry. The cell is bounded by a cell membrane and may also be bounded by a cell wall. All living components within this cell membrane are often referred to as the protoplasm. The protoplasm includes a nucleus and a mass of substance surrounding it, the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm may contain small differential areas or small organs known as organelles and non-living material, such as excretory products or reserve food. The cell, these organelles and the nucleus are membrane bound. The membranes are usually composed of associatedlayers of lipid and protein. They are important not only as boundaries of the cell and cell components but also as surfaces on which metabolic reactions take place.
4.13. Translate the text into English using the information from the unit.
a) Клетка – элементарная живая система, состоящая из двух основных частей – цитоплазмы и ядра. Она является основой строения, развития жизнедеятельности всех животных и растительных организмов. Клеточное строение обнаруживается на различных уровнях организации живой природы. Итак, клетки, составляющие тело бактерий и простейших, являются самостоятельными opгaнизмами; в отличие от этого, клетки, входящие в состав тканей многоклеточных организмов, представляют собой элементы, полностью подчиненные целостному организму. Основной план строения животных и растительных клеток сходен, однако последние отличаются некоторыми особыми чертами. У животных, например, нет микроскопически видимых оболочек, а все растительные клетки окружены хорошо выраженными целлюлозными оболочками, которые могут иметь сложное строение и включать различные органические и неорганические вещества. Клетка, как живая система поддерживает и восстанавливает свою целостность, адаптируется к условиям среды и выполняет различные функции за счет энергии вещества, пополняемой из окружающей среды. Любая клетка, являясь сравнительно высокоорганизованной формой живой материи, имеет сложный химический состав. Именно внутренняя структура клетки обеспечивает взаимодействие одних ферментов и разобщенность других, благодаря чему биохимические реакции протекают согласованно и в определенной последовательности. Описание особенностей, присущих большинству тканевых клеток и клеток простейших, составляет задачу общей цитологии. Частная цитология изучает отдельные морфологические типы клеток.
b) Изучение составных частей клеток и протоплазмы было начато после открытия микроскопа. Под микроскопом ученые увидели маленькие ячейки, которые названы клетками. Позднее обнаружили протоплазму. Все основные жизненные функции организма заключены в протоплазме. Она состоит из ядра, окруженного веществом, названным цитоплазмой. Химический состав протоплазмы сложный, ученые долго не могли ее изучить. Когда ученые начинают исследовать ее, она меняет свою структуру и умирает. Но исследования продолжаются, и в настоящее время очень много уже известно о свойствах, структуре и составе протоплазмы.
4.14 Reproduce in your own words:
До конца прошлого века характерны теории строения протоплазмы, исходившие из представления об ее неизменной морфологической структуре. С развитием физической и коллоидной химии стала ясной ошибочность упомянутых выше морфологических теорий строения протоплазмы. Было показано, что протоплазма находится в коллоидном состоянии, основой ее является вода с растворенными в ней солями и углеводами. Вопрос о состоянии воды в протоплазме исследователями решается различно. Одни признают наличие в протоплазме свободной воды; другие считают, что большая часть воды находится в связанном состоянии и становится свободной лишь при разрушении протоплазмы. Сейчас в протоплазме открыто более 60 элементов, но, вероятно, и другие химические элементы в том или ином количестве могут встречаться у различных организмов. Из химических соединений ведущая роль в протоплазме принадлежит белкам. Большое значение имеют комплексные соединения белков с липоидами, углеводами, нуклеиновыми кислотами и солями. Современные методы химического изучения протоплазмы пополнились рядом новых способов. Эти методы существенно расширили наши знания о химических особенностях протоплазмы, о распределении и взаимодействии ее химических компонентов.
Именно при помощи этих методов удалось получить четыре фракции протоплазмы: ядра, митохондрии, микросомы и гиалоплазму, подвергнув каждую из них химическому исследованию.
Именно при помощи этих методов стало возможным выяснить особенности распределения ферментов в структурах протоплазмы и опровергнуть распространенное раньше мнение о том, что большинство ферментов протоплазмы связано с клеточными ядрами. Оказалось, что важнейшие ферменты связаны не с ядрами, а с цитоплазмой.
4.15 Compose short dialogues forthe following imaginary situations:
1 Ask your friend if there is any difference between a green plant cell and an animal cell, and between a cell membrane and a cell wall. Discuss his answer. A new student joined your group. He had studied at the Physical faculty. He doesn't know anything about the cell theory. Tell him all you know about it.
2 A space ship carried some substance to the Earth from another planet. Examining it under the microscope you saw a cell. What conclusion can you draw from this fact?
3 When the cells are placed under the microscope they will die, if they become dry. From your knowledge of protoplasm explain the reason for this.
4 A student of your group is to examine protoplasm, but he doesn't know how to do it. Help him.
5 An acquaintance of yours has heard something about protoplasm and says that it resembles water. Describe the appearance of protoplasm and explain the difference.
6 Your friend declares that protoplasm is the most important substance in living things. Your point of view is that it is the nucleus that carries life functions. Try to prove it.
7 Your friend says that the words "protoplasm" and "cytoplasm' are synonyms. Explain the difference and prove that.
Grammar: The Participle
| Формы причастия | ||
| Active | Passive | |
| Present | asking | Being asked |
| Past | - | asked |
| Perfect | Having asked | Having been asked |
| Сравните употребление: Participle I (ing) Participle II (III форма глагола) Taking – берущий taken – взятый Discussing – обсуждая discussed – обсужденный |
| Сравните употребление: Present Participle Perfect Participle Buying – покупая having bought – купив Perfect Participle выражает действие, которое предшествует действию, выраженному глаголом в личной форме. |
PREHISTORIC PLANTS
Everyone has seen animals in cages even though they may not like the idea. Believe it or not cages plants also exist. They are the Wallemi Pine, possibly the world’s oldest plants, and have been kept for breeding and research purposes. The Wallemi Pine, which flourished in Australia before continental drift made for a drier climate, was discovered in 1994, after having been thought to be extinct for between 20 and 40 million years. It had previously been found only in fossilized form.
The present specimens, discovered in the Blue Mountains in New South Wales, have been dated to over1,000 years old. It is hoped that the 38 genetlcally identical plants will thrive, despite the danger of disease which would arise from their sharing the same DNA. One thing for sure, the Wallemi Pine will not be able to escape from their cages.
PART II
SUPPLEMENTARY READING
UNIT 1
Biology
What is Biology
Biology is the study of living things. If something is alive, it will show "life activities." These are respiration (energy release), nutrition (feeding), excretion (getting rid of waste products), reproduction, growth, sensitivity (reacting to surroundings), and movement. Different branches of biology concentrate on particular areas, such as botany or zoology. So far, about 1.7 million species of living things have been identified. Millions of species have yet to be discovered and classified.
Sensitivity
To avoid danger and to find the best conditions for life, living things must be able to detect changes in their surroundings and react to them. This is sensitivity.
Animals usually react quickly because they have sense organs (such as eyes) to receive information, and nervous systems to carry information.
Plants react more slowly, growing, for example, toward a stimulus such as light. Light, sounds, chemicals, touch, and temperature changes are all examples of stimuli
5. Read the text and find equivalents to the Russian words:
Потомство, передавать, хромосомы.
Reproduction
All living things eventually die. In order to prevent whole groups of organisms from dying out, living things must produce young that are like themselves.
This process is called reproduction. In most species two parents are needed to produce offspring, whereas in some species only one parent is needed. During reproduction the parents pass on information about how their offspring will look and develop. This information is carried and passed on through the chromosomes.
Nutrition
The way that organisms get their food is called nutrition. Food provides the building materials for growth and repair ,as well as energy for all the organism's life activities. The ultimate source of energy is the sun. Plants use the energy in sunlight to make their own food. Organisms that cannot make their own food must feed on others. Herbivores eat plants, carnivores eat animals, and omnivores eat both.
Food and Digestion
Organisms need food for energy, growth, and repair of old and damaged tissues. Most animals eat plants or other animals, so their food is made up of large, complex molecules. These must be digested (broken down) to simpler, smaller molecules before they can be absorbed and carried to all parts of the body. Proteins are broken down into amino acids. Carbohydrates are broken down into simple sugars. Fats are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol.
1. Proteins are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol.
2. Fats are broken down into amino acids.
3. Carbohydrates are broken down into simple sugars.
8. Read the text and find English equivalents to the Russian sentences:
1. Митохондрии – это склады энергии клетки. Они выдают всю необходимую ей энергию.
2. При дыхании отбирается энергия, хранящаяся в пище.
3. Способ, с помощью которого организмы получают энергию для обеспечения жизненных процессов, называется дыханием.
4. Углекислый газ и вода являются продуктами отходов.
5. При этом процессе выделяется энергия в виде химического вещества, называемого АТФ.
Respiration
The way in which organisms obtain energy to power their life processes is called respiration, and this takes place in their cells. Respiration takes the energy stored in foods (such as glucose) and changes it into a form that can be used by the cell.
Mitochondria are the powerhouses of the cell; they release all the energy it needs. Glucose enters the mitochondria and combines with oxygen. This process gives off energy in the form of a chemical called ATP. Carbon dioxide and water are the waste products.
9. Read the text and find English equivalents to the Russian words:
Происходить, отходы, процесс избавления, скапливаться, выделять, распад, излишний, пища, испражнение.
Excretion
The chemical reactions that take place inside cells produce waste products. Getting rid of these is called excretion. Excretion is necessary because if the waste products were allowed to build up, they would poison and kill the organism. Plants and animals excrete carbon dioxide from respiration. Plants also excrete oxygen, a waste product of photosynthesis, during the day. Animals need to get rid of waste from the breakdown of excess proteins in their diet. Expelling waste matter after digestion is defecation, not excretion.
Growth
When an organism grows it adds more cells to itself and becomes more complex. Once an organism has grown, it cannot return to its original size. Growth occurs by a process called mitosis, during which the chromosomes in a cell double and divide, and then the cell splits into two. In this way each new cell ends up as an exact replica of the original cell.
1. What is “mitosis”?
2. What is growth?
Maintaining life
For life processes to run smoothly, conditions inside an organism need to stay relatively stable. The process of keeping the internal conditions in a balanced state is called homeostasis.
Examples of homeostasis include keeping water levels balanced, controlling body temperature, and responding to external and internal stimuli.
Organisms have complex systems of checks and mechanisms to enable them to keep their internal state the same all the time.
UNIT 2
Where Organisms Live?
Living things are adapted to exist in particular places. The climate (temperature, sunlight, and rainfall) affects the type of vegetation that grows, which in turn determines the animals that live there. An organism is also affected by the soil type, whether the place is on dry land or under water, and the presence of other organisms competing for food and mates. A huge habitat zone, such as an ocean or a desert, is called a biome. Similar biomes can exist on different continents that share the same conditions. Desert biomes, for example, exist in America, Africa, Australia, and Asia.
SELLING IVORY
Elephants use tusks for stripping trees, moving objects, fighting and display. Humans have other uses for tusks – or ivory – such as jewellery, piano keys and billiard balls.
Although ivory has been valued for centuries, large-scale killing of elephants for ivory did not begin until about 1900. By the 1970s and 1980s, poaching became a serious problem.
Between 1979 and 1992, the numbers of elephants plunged from 1.3 million to about 600,000. Elephants were in danger. Those protecting the elephants chose a simple solution: ban the sale of ivory, and the poachers will find it difficult to make a living.
The ban on ivory sales worked. Elephant populations grew fast in Southern Africa. But they also began to damage crops and chase villagers.
This created a problem for those protecting wildlife. Angry villagers were demanding that elephants should be taken away from areas near humans – even killed. One solution was to let local people have control of the way the elephants were managed. But how could you make villagers want to look after the elephants?
So the authorities began to allow the sale of ivory as a way for the villagers to raise money. This gave them an interest in managing the elephants.
It seemed to make sense. If elephants were no longer endangered in southern Africa, shouldn't African countries be allowed to sell ivory to fund this sort of conservation program?
In 1998 the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) lifted the ban on all trade in ivory. Money from the sale of African ivory is being used to help people live alongside the elephant.
John Newby of the World Wide Fund for Nature says that preservation alone is not enough. "It isn't creating the incentives needed by ordinary Africans to see elephants as a valuable resource and not just a pest," says Newby.
So far it has been the tourist industry – airlines and hotels – that has made money from African wildlife. Now that local people can sell ivory again, the elephants are at last bringing wealth to their human neighbours. By Simon Baines
In the text above find the underlined words, which are close in meaning to those below:
| 1. Prized 2. caring for 3. preservation 4. close to | 5. fell sharply 6. insisting 7. put at risk | 8. stimuli 9. harm 10. illegal hunting |
Do the crossword.
| W | E | S | H | A | R | E | T | H | I | S | P | L | A | N | E | T | |||
1. A group of animals or plants which are similar and can breed together to produce young animals or plants of the same kind as them.
2. Animals that live on a farm or in someone's home.
3. Animals that eat flesh.
4. An animal that lives in water and swims, and uses its fins and tail to swim.
5. Creatures with wings and feathers that lay eggs and can usually fly.
6. Small creatures like a fly or ant, that have six legs, and sometimes wings.
7. Animals that can live both on land and in water.
8. The class of animals that drink milk from its mother's body when they are young.
9. Animals such as snakes or lizards whose blood changes according to the temperature around it, and that usually lay eggs.
THE LONG HISTORY OF BIRDS
Birds are descended from archosaurs, the reptile group which also gave rise to the dinosaurs, flying pterosaurs and crocodiles.
Several fossils of Archaeopteryx, a pigeon-sized creature s with feathers and reptile-like teeth, have been found in limestone laid down in the late Jurassic period, around 140 million years ago. About 40 cm long (one-third being tail), it had claws on its wings, legs like a modern bird and a small sternum with attachment areas for wing muscles.
A fossil bird which may predate Archaeopteryx by about 7 million years was found recently in northeastern China. Its beak lacks teeth and it has been named Confuciusornis sanctus.
The next oldest fossil material discovered so far consists of bones and feathers, found in locations ranging from Spain to Australia and dating from around 115 million years ago, in the early Cretaceous period. Lines of ancient birds which eventually died out included toothed, flightless divers like the 1.7 meter-long. Hesperornis, and the seabird-like flier Ichthyornis.
Around 100 million years ago, the first of the "modern" groups of birds, the Neornithes (the "new birds"), appeared. They diversified into many groups during the "age of dinosaurs" and most survived the changes which led to the disappearance of dinosaurs and pterosaurs..
AUSTRALIA'S BIRDS
Australia is home to some of the world's most remarkable birds. They