The functions of cardinal numerals in a sentence

Cardinal numerals are used in the function of subject, predi­cative, object, adverbial modifier and attribute (apposition).

... the young man opposite had long since disappeared. Now the othertwo got out. (Mansfield) (subject)

Earle Fox was onlyfifty-four, bill he felt timeless and an­cient. (Wilson) (PREDICATIVE)

And again she saw them, but not four, more like forty laugh­ing, sneering, jeering... (Mansfield) (object)

At eight the gang sounded for supper. (Mansfield) (adverbial modifier)

Four men in their shirtsleeves stood grouped together on the garden path. (Mansfield) (attribute)

And he remembered the holidays they used to have thefour of them, with a little girl, Rose, to look after the babies. (Mans­field) (apposition)

Cardinals are sometimes used to denote the place of an object in a series. Cardinals are used in reading indications: line 23, page 275, Chapter X, No. 49 etc.

... but from the corner of the street until she came toNo. 26she thought of those four flights of stairs. (Mansfield)

Class nouns modified by a numeral in post-position are used without articles.

All he wanted was to be made to care again, but each night he took up his briefcase and walked home to dinner at 117th Street and Riverside Drive, apartment 12D. (Wilson)

Ordinal numerals.

Ordinal numerals show the order of persons and things in a series.

With the exception of the first three (first, second, third) the ordinal numerals are formed from cardinal numerals by means of the suffix –th.

In ordinal groups only the last member of the group takes the ordinal form: (the) sixty-fifth, (the) twenty-third. Ordinal numer­als are generally used with the definite article (the first, the fifth, the tenth etc.). Ordinal numerals may be used with the in­definite article when they do not show a definite order of per­sons and things in a series:

"I've torn simply miles and miles of the frill," waileda third.(Mansfield)

The functions of ordinal numerals in a sentence.

As a rule ordinal numerals are used as attributes.

"No, this is myfirst dance," she said. (Mansfield)

Almost immediately the band started and hersecond partner seemed to spring from the ceiling. (Mansfield)

But they may also be used as subject, as predicative and as object.

Then, advancing obliquely towards us camea fifth. (Wells) (SUBJECT)

Sooner or later, someone is going to tell you about that damned river, so I might as well be the first. (Wilson) (predicative)

... she noted a scar on his cheek, another that peeped out from under the hair of the forehead, and a third that ran down and disappeared under the starched collar. (London) (object)

In fractional numbers the numerator is a cardinal and the de­nominator is a substantivized ordinal: two-thirds, three-sixths.

Decimal fractions are read in the following way: 7.58—seven point (decimal) five eight.

Chapter VI

THE WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OF STATE

§ 1. The words of the category of state denote thetemporarystate orcondition of persons or things.

But Johnny and Paddy wereasleep, the rose-red glow had paled, bats were flying, and still the bathers had not returned. (Mans­field)

Crearer said, "I'mafraid, General, we have to rely on the appeal of the leaflet." (Heym)

§ 2.As regardsform the words of the category of state have the prefix a-: ablaze, afire, aflame, afoot, afraid, asleep, awake etc.

§ 3. They are mainly used in the function of a predicative.

“He is awake!” Sally cried. (Saxton)

That was all right in the daytime, but while Alice was putting her to bed she grew suddenly afraid. (Mansfield)

When he got into bed, he was sure he'd never fall asleep, and yet he was dog-tired. (Wilson).

... but at the first double knock every window in the street becamealive with female heads. (Dickens)

Words of the category of state may be used as objective pre­dicatives.

She was saying that she intended to leave him entirely alone again. (Wilson)

Words of the category of state may be sometimes used as attri­butes. But unlike adjectives they cannot be placed before the words they modify. As attributes they may be only used in post-position:

The father and mother dolls, who sprawled very stiff as though they had fainted in the drawing-room, and their two little children asleep upstairs were really too big for the doll's house. (Mansfield)

§ 4. Words of the category of state can be modified by adverbs of degree:

Sally, who had beenhalf asleep with her head on Eddy’s lap, woke up and began chanting. (Saxton)

Mrs. Gamp's curtains were drawn close, and Mrs. Gamp wasfast asleep. (Dickens).

He immediately camefully awake. (Heym)

Words of the category of state may take prepositional indirect objects.

"You wereafraid of the war? " she asked compassionately. (Heym)

... but at the first double knock every window in the street became alive with female heads. (Dickens)

"Merry," cried that more prudent damsel, "really I amashamed of you." (Dickens)

Chapter VII

THE ADVERB

§ 1. The adverb is a part of speech, which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points out some characteristic features of an action or a quality.

Thefunction of the adverb is that of an adverbial modifier. An adverb may modify verbs (verbals), words of the category of state, adjectives and adverbs.

Annette turned her necklazily, touched one eyelash and said: "He amuses Winifred." (Galsworthy)

And glancingsidelong at his nephew he thought... (Galsworthy)

For a second they stood with handshard clasped. (Galsworthy)

And now the morning grew so fair, and all things were sowide-awake. (Dickens)

The man must have haddiabolically acute hearing. (Wells)

Harris spokequite kindly and sensibly about it. (Jerome)

§ 2. As to their structure adverbs are divided into:

(1)Simple adverbs (long, enough, then, there etc.);

(2)Derivative adverbs (slowly, likewise) forward, headlong etc.); (The most productive adverb-forming suffix is -ly. There are also some other suffixes: -wards, -ward, -long, -wise.)

(3)Compound adverbs (anyhow, sometimes, nowhere etc.);

(4)Composite adverbs (at once, at last etc.).

§ 3. Some adverbs havedegrees of comparison.

(a) If the adverb is a word of one syllable, the comparative degree is formed by adding -er and the superlative by adding -est.

fast — faster — fastest

hard — harder — hardest

(b) Adverbs ending in -ly form the comparative by means of more and the superlative by means of most.

wisely — more wisely — most wisely

beautifully—more beautifully—most beautifully

(c) Some adverbs have irregular forms of comparison:

well —better—best

badly— worse —- worst

much — more — most

little — less — least

§ 4. According to theirmeaning adverbs fall under several groups:

(1) Adverbs oftime (today, to-morrow, soon etc.);

(2) Adverbs ofrepetition or frequency (often, seldom, ever, never, sometimes etc.);

(3) Adverbs ofplace anddirection (inside, outside, here, there, backward, upstairs etc.);

(4) Adverbs ofcause andconsequence (therefore, consequently, accordingly etc.);

(5) Adverbs ofmanner (kindly, quickly, hard etc.);

(6) Adverbs of degree, measure and quantity (very, enough, half, too, nearly, almost, much, little, hardly, rather, exceedingly, quite, once, twice, firstly, secondly etc.).

Three groups of adverbs stand aside: interrogative, relative and conjunctive adverbs.

Interrogative adverbs (where, when, why, how) are used in special questions.

Conjunctive and relative adverbs are used to introduce subordinate clauses.

Some adverbs are homonymous with prepositions, conjunctions and words of the category of state.

THE PLACE OF ADVERBS IN THE SENTENCE

1. Adverbs of time – yesterday, then, yet, now, today, tomorrow, etc. – are placed at the end of the sentence or at the very beginning of it.

I went to the theatre yesterday. Yesterday I went to the theatre.

2. Adverbs of repetition and frequency – often, never, seldom, sometimes, usually, still etc. - precede the principal verb.

They never do this. He often goes there.

But with the verb to be they follow the verb.

She is still in bed. The girl is often ill

3. Adverbs of manner – kindly, badly, well, etc. and of place – here, there etc. – are usually placed after the direct object or after the verb.

Mr. Black’s wife plays the piano well.

4. If an adverb of time and an adverb of place are used together the latter precedes the former.

I’ll go there tomorrow.

5. Adverbs of degree (almost, nearly, quite, just, too, very etc.) are generally placed before adjectives or other adverbs.

I find him very clever. We know him quite well.

Mind that enough comes after the adjective.

This hat is good enough for me.

Chapter VIII

THE MODAL WORDS

§ 1. Themodal words express the attitude of the speaker to the reality, possibility or probability of the action he speaks about.

§ 2. According to theirmeaning modal words fall under the following main groups:

(1) Words expressingcertainty (certainly, surely, assuredly, of course, no doubt, apparently, undoubtedly etc.);

(2) Words expressingsupposition (perhaps, maybe, possibly, probably etc.);

(3) Words showing whether the speaker considers the action he speaks aboutdesirable or undesirable (happily — unhappily: lucki­ly — unluckily; fortunately — unfortunately).

§ 3. In the sentence modal words are used as parentheses. Sometimes they are used as sentence-words.

Certainly you'll admit we could finish all this in a month. (Wilson)

"Will you allow me to detain you one moment," said he."Cer­tainly," replied the unwelcome visitor. (Dickens)

§ 4. Most modal words have developed from adverbs, so very often there exists a formal identity between modal words and ad­verbs. For instance such modal words as certainly, surely, happily are homonymous with the adverbs certainly, surely, happily.

Such modal words as possibly, probably, indeed, also derived from adverbs, have no corresponding homonymous adverbs because the latter ceased to be used in Modern English

Though formally identical with adverbs, modal words differ from them in meaning and syntactical function.

If he were not married ashappily as he was, might not some­thing come of it? (Dreiser) (ADVERB)

... she hauled me to the washstand, inflicted a merciless, but hap­pily brief scrub on my face and hands with soap water, and a coarse towel. (Ch. Bronte) (modal word)

Lamlein rose. "We have fulfilled our obligations," he said pom­pously, and yet not quite certainly. (Heym) (adverb)

Soames smiled. Certainly, uncle Jolyon had a way with him. (Galsworthy) (modal word)

Slowly,surely, with the secret inner process that works the de­struction of an old tree, the poison of the wounds to his happiness, his will, his pride, had corroded the comely edifice of his philo­sophy. (Galsworthy) (adverb)

Over the ridge she would find him. Surely she would find him over the ridge. (Wells) (modal word)

Chapter IX

THE INTERJECTION

§ 1. Theinterjection isa part of speech, which expresses various emotions without naming them.

§ 2. According to theirmeaning interjections fall under two main groups, namelyemotional interjections andimperative interjections.

1. Emotional interjections express the feelings of the speaker. They are ah, oh, eh, bravo, alas etc.

... A man jumped on top of the barricade and waving exuberantly shouted, "Americans! Hurrah!" (Heym) (Joy)

Alas! The white house was empty and there was a bill in the window "To let". (Dickens) (Sorrow)

Psha! There's no possibility of being witty without a little ill nature. (Sheridan) (Contempt)

Oh, bother! I can't see anyone now. Who is it? (Shaw) (Indignation)

"Dear me!" says Mr. Chillip meekly smiling with something shining in his eyes. (Dickens) (Surprise)

2. Imperative interjections show the will of the speaker or his order or appeal to the hearer. They are: here, hush, sh-sh, well, come, now etc.

Here! I've had enough of this. I'm going. (Shaw) (Protest)

"Upon my word I was not awake, sir," replied Oliver earnestly. "I was not, indeed, sir.""Tush, tush, my dear!" said the Jew abruptly resuming his old manner. (Dickens) (Order)

§ 3. Interjections may beprimary andsecondary.

1. Primary interjections are not derived from other parts of speech. Most of them are simple words: ah, oh, eh, pooh, hush, fie, bravo. Only a few primary interjections are composite: helgh-ho! Hey-ho, holla-ho, gee-ho!

2. Secondary interjections are derived from other parts of speech. They are homonymous with the words they are derived from. They are: well, now, here, there, come, why etc.

Derivative interjections should not be confused with exclama­tion-words, such as nonsense, shame, good etc.)

Derivative interjections may be simple: well, here, there, come, etc., and composite: dear me, confound it, hang it etc.

Interjections are used as independent sentence-words or indepen­dent elements of the sentence.

The Daughter: Sixpence thrown away! Really mamma, you might have spared Freddy that. The Gentleman:Phew! (Shaw)

Well, I don't like those mysterious little pleasure trips that he is so fond of taking. (Voynich)

Note. Formulas of courtesy, greetings, etc. should not be regarded as inter­jections. Thus, good-bye and thank you are not interjections because they do not express emotion or will.

Chapter X

THE PREPOSITION

§ 1. Thepreposition is a form-word, which has no independent lexical meaning and is used with a noun or pronoun to show its relation to some other word in the sentence.

Usually the preposition is not stressed and stands before the word it refers to.

Desert moved quickly to the windows. (Galsworthy)

Sometimes, however, a preposition may be separated from the word it refers to and placed at the end of the sentence or clause, in that case it is stressed.

But he sounds as though he knows what he's talkingabout. (Wilson)

The preposition may be weakly stressed before a pronoun.

She wrote the words to them herself, and other poems. (Galsworthy)

The preposition is stressed when its meaning is emphasized.

The book was in the table, not on it.

§2. As to their morphological structure prepositions fall under the following groups:

(1)Simple (in, on, at, for, with etc.);

(2) Derivative (behind, below, across, along etc.);

(3)Compound (inside, outside, within, without etc.);

(4)Composite (because of, in front of, in accordance with etc.).

§ 3. According to their meaning prepositions may be divided into prepositions of place and direction (in, on, below, under, between etc.), time (after, before, at etc.), prepositions expressingabstract relations (отвлеченные отношения) (by, with, because of, with a view to etc.)

The lexical meaning of some prepositions is quite concrete (e. g. in, below, between, before, after, till etc.), while that of some other prepositions may be weakened to a great extent (e. g. to, by, of).

For instance, the preposition to generally indicates direction or movement towards something:

Every night Sissy went to Rachel's lodging, and sat with her in her small neat room. (Dickens)

But in some cases the lexical meaning of the preposition to is weakened.

... all the house belongs to me, or will do in a few years. (Ch. Bronte)

Some prepositions are polysemantic and may express different relations; e. g. for:

Never once had Erik sensed the struggle for life. (Wilson) (Purpose)

Even when their eyes had met and her sister had approached the bed, Louisa layfor minutes looking at her in silence... (Dickens) (Time)

She could scarcely move her head;for pain and heaviness, her eyes were strained and sore, and she was very weak. (Dickens) (Cause)

§ 4. Some prepositions are homonymous with adverbs and con­junctions.

For instance, the prepositions after and before are homonymous with the adverbs after and before and with the conjunctions after and before.

There is an old saying that if a man has not fallen in love before forty, he had better not fall in loveafter. (Shaw) (adverb)

When he got back to Ann Arbor, he found Savina in a state of excitement because Trasker had heard from Reganafter Erik had left. (Wilson) (CONJUNCTION)

"Where do you intend to stay tonight?" she askedafter a mo­ment. (Wilson) (preposition)

The colour rushed into Bosinney's face, but soon receded, leaving it sallow-brown as before. (Galsworthy) (adverb)

He did not write to her, and it was almost a yearbefore he be­gan to see her again. (Wilson) (conjunction)

This letter seemed to afford her peculiar satisfaction; she read it through twicebefore replying to the landlady. (Mansfield) (preposition)

Though identical in form, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are different parts of speech. The adverb, unlike the preposition and conjunction, serves as part of the sentence; e. g. after is an adver­bial modifier of time etc.

§ 5. Some prepositions (on, in, by, over, off, up) are homonymous with postpositions.

A preposition as well as a postposition does not perform any independent function in the sentence. But while a preposition de­notes the relation between objects and phenomena, a postposition is part of a composite verb.

A preposition is not usually stressed, while a postposition usually bears the stress.

We've got to live on what we earn. (Cronin) (preposition)

He liked Erik more than any of the assistants the department had taken on in a long time, as much as he could like one of the younger men. (Wilson) (postposition)

Chapter XI

THE CONJUNCTION

§ 1. Theconjunction is a part of speech, which hasn’t independent lexical meaning of its own, but serves to connect words, group of words and sentences or clauses.

Sadie brought them inand went back to the door. (Mansfield)

... the blinds were down in the dining-roomand the lights turned on — and all the lights were red-roses. (Mansfield)

The other day I was saying to Fabermacher that Haviland isn't really cruel he's just thoughtless.And Fabermacher said that was the cruelest thing about the human race.And he's right. (Wilson)

§ 2. According to theirmorphological structure conjunctions are divided into the following groups:

(1)Simple conjunctions (and, or, but, till, after, that, so, where, when, etc.).

Some of the simple conjunctions are homonymous with preposi­tions, adverbs, and pronouns.

(2) Derivative conjunctions (until, unless etc.).

(3)Compound conjunctions (however, whereas, wherever etc.). These conjunctions are few.

(4)Composite conjunctions (as well as, as long as, in case, for fear (that), on the ground that, for the reason that etc.).

Some conjunctions are used in pairs (correlatively): both...and, either ... or, not only ... but (also), neither ... nor, whether... or.

If anyone had asked him if he wanted to own her soul, the ques­tion would have seemed to himboth ridiculousand sentimental. (Galsworthy)

... nor would John Reed have found it out himself; he was not quick either of vision or conception. (Ch. Bronte)

Her son hadnot only come home,but he had come home a good person. (Abrahams)

Well, they were honest eyes, he concluded, and in them was neither smallness nor meanness. (London)

He was aware of vague memories of rain and wind and snow, butwhether he had been beaten by the storm for two days or two weeks he did not know. (London)

§3. As to their function conjunctions fall under two classes

(1) Coordinating conjunctions;

(2) Subordinating conjunctions.

Coordinating conjunctions join coordinate clauses in a compound sentence (a), or homogeneous parts in a simple sentence (b), or homogeneous subordinate clauses in a complex sentence (c), or in dependent sentences (d).

(a) He had said he would stay quiet in the hall,but he simply couldn't any more;and crossing the gravel of the drive he lay down on the grass beyond. (Galsworthy)

(b) He opened his eyesand stared quietly at the pure sky. (Wilson.)

(c) Hers was that common insularity of mind that makes human creatures believe that their color, creed, and politics are best and rightand that other human creatures scattered over the world are less fortunately placed than they. (London)

(d) Fabermacher wasted no time on a comedy of errors, and Haviland apologized for his mistake.But hewasnotasimpressedasErikhadwantedhimtobe.(Wilson)

Subordinating conjunctions generally join a subordinate or dependent clause to a principal clause (a), or adverbial modifiers to the predicate in a simple sentence (b), or sometimes they join homogeneous parts (c).

(a) When he was eight, he got work in another mill. (London.)

(b) He shook his head a bit as if in wonder that he had permit­ted himself to be caught in such crosscurrents. (Wilson)

(c) My look or something else must have struck her as offensive, for she spoke with extreme,though suppressed irritation. (Ch. Bronte.)