Discuss these questions with your partner.

UNIT ONE: ATOM AND MATTER

Part I “STANDARD MODEL”

“The creating element in the mind of man emerges in as mysterious a fashion as those elementary particles which leap into momentary existence in great cyclotrons, only to vanish again like infinitesimal ghosts”

Sir Arthur Eddington, 1928

LEAD-IN

Discuss these questions with your partner.

What is an atom?

What is smaller than an atom?

What happens if you split an atom?

VOCABULARY

Match these words with their definitions.

1. subatomic a part of an atom which has no charge

2. electron b two or more particles

3. neutron c smaller than an atom

4. molecule d part of an atom that has a negative charge

5. proton e a theory developed by physicists to explain the atom

6. quantum mechanics f part of an atom which has a positive charge

7. carbon g pulled together

8. attracted h a chemical element

9. universe i a chemical element that is lighter than air

10. helium j the whole cosmos

Arrange the sentences of the last paragraph in the right order.

5. Read the text again and find the words that mean the same as the following definitions.

a. a property of something that dictates its potential for change;

b. a fundamental force through which masses attract one another;

c. a means of transmitting a force at a distance;

d. light manifesting as a particle;

e. physical substance in general that everything in the world consists of;

f. a property that is equivalent to the number of atoms or amount of energy that something contains;

g. to be destroyed gradually by natural processes;

h. to move in continuous circles, going upwards or downwards;

i. a lift, pull or push, causing the motion of something to change;

j. a fundamental particle, three of which combine to make up protons and neutrons.

In pairs, discuss and write definitions for the following terms from the text. Use a dictionary to help you.

stable

charge

infinitesimal

dominate

discrete

magnet

release

beam

curve (n)

7. Fill the gaps with the new words:

Decay, boson, subatomic, mass, energy, muons, stable, magnet, curve, release, gravity

PART A

a. The __________ of a substance doesn’t change with temperature or location in space.

b. The__________ of light is transformed directly into electricity in photocells.

c. Ernest Rutherford was the first to suggest that radioactivity was the result of atomic __________.

d. Although simple harmonic motion is predictable and __________ , adding even small extra forces can destabilize it and may precipitate catastrophe.

e. Not all__________ particles are charged, however.

f. Hold two__________ close to one another, you can feel them repel.

g. Every body has a centre of__________.

h. __________ are much heavier than electrons but lighter than taus.

i. The ball__________ through the air.

j. Intense heat is__________ in the reaction.

k. The Higgs__________ is called ‘God particle’.

PART B

Charge, infinitesimal, dominate, discrete, beam, spiral, track

a. If the gap is small compared with the distance between the waves then the rounded edges __________ the pattern and the transmitted wave may look almost semi-circular.

b. Using together Heiesenberg’s matrix mechanics and Schrodinger’s wave equation was fundamentally difficult because one was__________ and the other continuous.

c. Turn the quarks into antiquarks by flipping their__________, and you’ve made an antineutron.

d. On some surfaces the __________ of the particles became unstable, and they fell off the edge.

e. During the experiment the__________ traces of poison were found.

f. The time the __________ takes to travel to the Moon and back can be used to calculate the distance to the Moon.

g. The plane__________ down the ground.

Look at the four lettered spaces in the text (A),(B),(C),(D) that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage. Where would this sentence best fit?

The biggest difference between leptons and quarks is that leptons don’t have color charges, and therefore aren’t affected by the strong force.

9. Which of the sentences below expresses the summary of the text:

· Standard Model is a quite table of all elementary particles;

· Standard Model is an attempt to create a unified theory;

· Standard Model is a theoretical structure of interactions of all elementary particles.

Complete these sentences with information that reflects your personal views.

1. The Standard model is a successful theory of particle physics…

2. The biggest success of the Standard model is…

3. The biggest failure of the Standard model is…

Test yourself.

1) What are the states of matter? Describe five properties for each of them.

2) Draw out what the particles look like in a solid, a liquid and a gas.

3) Give the names of six changes of state, and say which state they go from and to.

4) Explain how gases exert a pressure on the insides of a container.

5) What happens to the pressure of a gas if the volume of the gas is decreased?

6) Explain what diffusion is. What’s it a bit like doing?

7) What is a compound? How is a compound different from a mixture?

8) Is it easy to split a compound back up into is original elements?

9) What is an alloy?

10) Why is diamond different from most non-metals? What is unusual about graphite?

11) What is atomic volume?

12) What are atomic radii?

13) What is an ion?

14) What is Octet rule?

15) What is Hund’s rule?

22. Build an atom! If you want to play and take part in interactive simulations, go to

phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/build-an-atom

LISTENING

23. Listen to ‘CERN the Standard Model of Particle Physics’ and choose the right answer.

1) The objective of particle physicists is:

a) To understand the basic structure and laws of nature;

b) To create a unified theory of the structure of the universe;

c) To discover all elementary particles;

2) At first scientists supposed that an atom has:

a) a nucleus and electrons;

b) protons, neutrons and electrons;

c) leptons and quarks;

3) The scientists found many new elementary particles:

a) at the beginning of the 20^th century;

b) at the end of the 19^th century;

c) at the end of the 20^th century;

4) all particles were organized according to their:

a) spin;

b) mass and an electrical charge;

c) properties;

5) the weak force explains:

a) the energy of the nucleus;

b) radioactive gamma decay;

c) the energy of the Sun and radioactive beta decay;

6) Quarks are glued together by gluons in:

a) Protons;

b) Neutrons;

c) Protons and neutrons;

7) Beyond the Standard Model there are many questions to be answered such as:

a) Superconductivity and wave-particle duality;

b) Supersymmetry and extra dimensions;

c) Black holes and antimatter;

Funny Science Jokes

1. What’s the difference between a quantum mechanic and an auto mechanic? The quantum mechanic can get inside without opening the door.

2. Who solves mysteries involving electricity? Sherlock Ohms.

DESCRIBING GRAPHS

B. C.

WRITING

Look at three lettered spaces in the text (A),(B),(C) that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

Because we don’t see this, there cannot be much antimatter around.

4. Read the text again and find the words that mean the same as the following definitions.

a. Similarity under reflection or rotation or re-scaling;

b. A line of light, electric waves or particles;

c. Combination of some things;

d. Either of two numbers or letters used to fix the position of a point on a map or graph;

e. A statement showing that two amounts or values are equal;

f. The act or process of moving or the way something moves;

g. The state of being equal;

h. The rate at which sb/sth moves or travels;

i. The path or direction that sb/sth is moving in;

j. To destroy sb/sth completely.

Choose the right option.

A.According to the text Paul Dirac…

1. Ignored the presence of negative energy;

2. Found that his equation had negative-energy solution;

3. Suggested that anti-electrons exist.

B.The first evidence of positrons existence…

1. was obtained with the help of particle accelerators;

2. was discovered in space;

3. was experimentally produced by Carl Anderson in his lab.

C.The first antiproton was discovered in…

1. 1932;

2. 1955;

3. 1952

D.To make an anti-hydrogen the physicists…

1. Join antiproton and antineutron;

2. Join a positron and an anti-proton;

3. Split tritium into anti-deuterium and deuterium;

E.When the beams of particles and antiparticles meet, they annihilate each other and…

1. Their mass is converted into energy;

2. New virtual particles appear instead;

3. They combine into photon which has zero movement in time.

Example: (0 )been

Paul Dirack has (0) been called’ the strangest man’. He admitted (1) he never started a sentence (2) knowing how to finish it; people joked that his (3) words were ‘Yes ‘, ‘ No’ and ‘I don’t know’. Luckily he was (4) brilliantly clever as he was acutely shy. His doctorate, completed (5) Cambridge University in record time was a completely new picture (6) quantum mechanics. Dirac went (7) to corporate relativity theory (8) quantum theory. (9) he was awarded (10) Nobel Prize in 1933, fearing the publicity, Dirac hesitated to go and accept (11). He only agreed when told that he might get (12) attention if he turned it down.

SPEAKING

Test yourself.

1) Can neutrons be transmuted into anti-neutrons?

2) Where is all antimatter?

3) Does antigravity exist? Why do you think so?

4) Do antiparticles attract other antiparticles?

5) Why didn’t matter and antimatter annihilate just after the Big Bang?

6) How do scientists make antimatter?

7) Is it possible to keep obtained antiparticles?

8) What is formed after annihilation of matter and antimatter?

9) Can antimatter be used as fuel?

10) Can it have practical medical applications?

LISTENING

19. Go to https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CtR5EkvLNfg and watch the video ‘What Happened to Antimatter?’ and choose the right answer.

1) Can energy be made into matter? How?

2) What does 50/50 mean here?

3) What happens at CERN’s Large Hadron Collider every second?

4) What do an electron and a positron have in common?

5) How do they differ from protons and anti-protons?

6) How would an anti-world look like?

7) Why didn’t matter annihilate after the colliding with anti-matter after the Big Bang?

WRITING

Test yourself.

1. Write down the nuclear equation for the alpha decay of:

a) ²³⁸₉₂ U b) ²³⁰₉₀Th с) ²⁴¹₉₅ Am

2. Write down the nuclear equation for the beta decay of:

a) ²³⁴₉₀ Th, b) ⁹⁰₃₈ Sr, c) ¹³¹₅₃ I.

3. Give a proper definition of half-life.

4. Briefly describe what nuclear radiation does to living cells.

5. Why are alpha particles so good at ionizing atoms?

6. What is the main difference between X-rays and gamma rays?

7. Describe in detail how radioactive sources are used in each of the following:

a) treating cancer, b) tracers in medicine

8. Describe in detail how radioactive sources are used in each of the following:

a) tracers in industry, b) smoke alarms.

9. What type of particle is uranium-235 bombarded in a nuclear reactor to make it split?

10. An old bit of cloth was found to contain 1 part in 80 000 000 carbon-14. If carbon-14 decays with a half-life of 5730 years, find the age of the cloth.

11. Explain how a chain reaction is created in a nuclear reactor.

Look at the three lettered spaces in the text (A), (B), (C) that indicate where the following sentence can be added to the passage. Where would the sentence best fit?

Compared with fission technology, fusion reactions are relatively clean and, should they work, efficient.

4. Read the text again and find the words that mean the same as the following phrases.

a. used to describe actions that affect two or more things equally;

b. to succeed in dealing with or controlling something;

c. a range of levels or numbers used for measuring something;

d. closely connected with something;

e. made something increase, or become better;

f. made it difficult for something to continue in the normal way;

g. to become fewer or less;

h. to control and use the force or strength of something to produce power or achieve something;

i. to start or make something to burn;

j. to combine or make two or more things to form a single thing.

Test yourself.

1. What happens during nuclear fusion?

2. What reaction is considered the most promising for producing sustainable fusion power?

3. What elements have the largest binding energies per nucleon of all nuclei?

4. Does fusion only release energy, or it can absorb energy?

5. Where does fusion occur naturally?

6. Has artificial fusion in human enterprises achieved?

7. What process is called nucleosynthesis?

8. What scientific and technological difficulties the controlled fusion is accompanied by?

9. How can scientists overcome electromagnetic repulsion to achieve fusion?

10. Do fusion or fission reactions have a greater energy density per unit of mass?

DISCUSSION

In you discussion, you must ANALYZE and EXPLAIN your results.

Link your results to your original hypotheses.

Explain your experimental observations in specific terms.

Discuss possible sources of error and how they might have affected your results.

Compare your results to those of similar experiments published elsewhere.

Draw overall conclusions.

This is your chance to show us your capacity for creative, scientific thought. Refer to literature and other published material on the subject, but offer your own insights and ideas about your observations.

UNIT ONE. VOCABULARY LIST

absorption n bond ,v boost, v by-product, n complementary, adj conjugation, n devastate, v disrupt, v emerge, v emission, n Enrich, v envelop, v equation, n equivalence, n exothermic, adj fissile, adj harness (v) ignite, v implement, v infer (v)

infinitesimal, adj leftover (n) map (v) mediate (v) minuscule (adj) multiplication (n) parity (n) perpendicular (adj) proliferation (n) purity (n) replicate (v) repulsive (adj) seek (v) self-sustaining (adj) spontaneous (adj) transmutation (n) trigger (v) undergo (v) unleash (v) vicinity (n)

APPENDIX: Mathematical symbols in English

Symbol	Name	Read as	Symbol	Name	Read as
=	equality	equals, is equal to	∏	multiplication	product over … from … to …of
≡	definition	is defined as	!	factorial	factorial
≈	approximately equal	is approximately equal to	⇒	material implication	implies
≠	inequation	does not equal, is not equal to	⇔	material equivalence	if and only if
<	strict inequality	is less than	|…|	absolute value	absolute value of
>		is greater than	||	parallel	is parallel to
≪		is much less than	⊥	perpendicular	is perpendicular to
≫		is much greater than	≅	congruence	is congruent to
≤	inequality	is less than or equal to	φ	golden ratio	golden ratio
≥		is greater than or equal to	∞	infinity	infinity
∝	proportionality	is proportional to	∈	set membership	is an element of
+	addition	plus	∉		is not an element of
-	subtraction	minus	{,}	Set brackets	the set of
×	multiplication	times	ℕ	Natural numbers	N
∑	summation	sum over … from … to … of, sigma	ℤ	Integers	Z
÷	division	divided by	ℚ	Rational numbers	Q
/	slash	over smth; divided by	ℝ	Real numbers	R
±	plus-minus	plus or minus	ℂ	Complex numbers	C
∓	minus-plus	minus or plus	x̄	Mean	bar, overbar
√	square root	square root	x̄	complex conjugate	the complex conjugate of x

GRAMMAR

THE INFINITIVE

1. The infinitive can be the subject of the sentence, and translated as the infinitive or a noun.

To be a materialist means to accept the primacy of matter.

To determine the properties of the substance needs a lot of experiments.

2. As an object it the infinitive is used after the predicate.

They have to minimize the disadvantages.

3. The infinitive can be an adverbial modifier.

The form of the equation should be simple so as to be useful for the calculation.

4. As an attribute the infinitive is translated by a subordinate clause with the help of the following words: который, должен, нужно, можно.

There are many considerations to be taken into account in determining space velocity.

5. As a parenthesis the infinitive is usually used at the beginning of the sentence with a comma after it.

This is the list of most frequently used parentheses:

to begin (start) with - прежде всего;

to judge by – судя по, если судить по;

to make a long story short – короче говоря;

to mention (only some) – если упомянуть (лишь некоторые);

to name (only a few) – если упомянуть (лишь немногие);

to put it another way – иначе говоря;

to put it briefly – короче говоря;

to put it mildly – мягко выражаясь;

needless to say – нет надобности говорить о…;

to say nothing of - не говоря уже о… ;

suffice it to say – достаточно сказать;

to be exact – точнее говоря;

so to speak – так сказать;

to sum up – если подвести итог;

to quote (a single example) – если привести (один пример);

to return – если возвратиться;

to tell the truth – по правде говоря.

The to-infinitive is used:

a) To express purpose. To live long it is necessary to live slowly (M. T. Cicero)

b) After certain verbs (advise, agree, appear, decide, expect, hope, manage, offer, promise, refuse, seem, want, afford, etc.) They decided to check the new device.

c) After adjectives such as nice, glad, afraid, etc. It was very difficult to do the calculations on time.

d) After too and enough Physicists haven’t got enough data to understand this phenomenon.

e) After it + be +adjective (+ of + noun (pronoun) It is very important to discover any evidence for any graininess in gravity.

f) After would like/ would love/would prefer They would prefer to repeat the experiment in another mode.

The bare infinitive is used:

a) After modal verbs

These vertices can be used to represent many different types of interactions.

b) After the verbs let, make, see, notice, hear and feel but: be made/ be heard/ be seen + to +infinitive

Feynman’s diagrams let physicists to calculate the probability that the interaction will take place.

c) After had better and would rather

We had better follow some basic rules.

Note: if two infinitives are joined by and, the toof the second infinitive can be omitted.

Forms of the Infinitives

	Active Voice	Passive Voice
Present Simple	( to) write	(to) be written
Present Continuous	(to) be writing	(to) be being written
Present Perfect	(to) have written	(to) have been written
Perfect Continuous	(to) have been writing	(to) have been being written *

The Present Infinitive refers to the present or future. e.g. To construct an experiment of this kind seems nearly impossible.

The Present Continuous Infinitive expresses an action happening now. e.g. Physicists seem to bestruggling with this discrepancy.

The Perfect Infinitive is used to show that the action of the infinitive happened before the action of the verb. e.g. They claim to have seen larger particles behaving like waves.

The Perfect Continuous Infinitive is used to emphasize the duration of the action of the infinitive, which happened before the action of the main verb. e.g. They seem to have been computing all night.

A) John Reeder is a young researcher. He is going to solve a scientific problem. Using the prompts given, say what he expects to do, as in the example.

e.g. He expects to recognize a problem.

a) collect experimental facts or data;

b) analyze data;

c) set up a tentative hypothesis;

d) plan his own experiments;

e) analyze the results;

f) make some necessary calculations, graphs, tables;

g) modify the hypothesis.

(B) John has finished the experiments. Things didn’t happen the way he expected them to. Look at the prompts above again and make sentences as in the example.

e.g. He expected to have recognized the problem.

GRAMMAR

THE INFINITIVE

6. The infinitive can be the subject of the sentence, and translated as the infinitive or a noun.

To be a materialist means to accept the primacy of matter.

To determine the properties of the substance needs a lot of experiments.

7. As an object it the infinitive is used after the predicate.

They have to minimize the disadvantages.

8. The infinitive can be an adverbial modifier.

The form of the equation should be simple so as to be useful for the calculation.

9. As an attribute the infinitive is translated by a subordinate clause with the help of the following words: который, должен, нужно, можно.

There are many considerations to be taken into account in determining space velocity.

10. As a parenthesis the infinitive is usually used at the beginning of the sentence with a comma after it.

This is the list of most frequently used parentheses:

to begin (start) with - прежде всего;

to judge by – судя по, если судить по;

to make a long story short – короче говоря;

to mention (only some) – если упомянуть (лишь некоторые);

to name (only a few) – если упомянуть (лишь немногие);

to put it another way – иначе говоря;

to put it briefly – короче говоря;

to put it mildly – мягко выражаясь;

needless to say – нет надобности говорить о…;

to say nothing of - не говоря уже о… ;

suffice it to say – достаточно сказать;

to be exact – точнее говоря;

so to speak – так сказать;

to sum up – если подвести итог;

to quote (a single example) – если привести (один пример);

to return – если возвратиться;

to tell the truth – по правде говоря.

Forms of the Infinitives

	Active Voice	Passive Voice
Present Simple	( to) write	(to) be written
Present Continuous	(to) be writing
Present Perfect	(to) have written	(to) have been written
Perfect Continuous	(to) have been writing

UNIT ONE: ATOM AND MATTER

Part I “STANDARD MODEL”

“The creating element in the mind of man emerges in as mysterious a fashion as those elementary particles which leap into momentary existence in great cyclotrons, only to vanish again like infinitesimal ghosts”

Sir Arthur Eddington, 1928

LEAD-IN

Discuss these questions with your partner.

What is an atom?

What is smaller than an atom?

What happens if you split an atom?

VOCABULARY