Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations.

As for the structure Theoretical Grammar can be stipulated by syntagmatic (distributive) or paradigmatic (transformative) relations.

Other words, connections of language elements can be syntagmatic or paradigmatic (drawing 1.3).

Relations of contiguity The relations stipulate connections of language elements of the highest level. Adjacent language elements (relations of contiguity) can not replace each other for they belong to the different grammatical categories. They create meaningful combinations and have a propriety to combine meaningfully (not any two or more elements can be combined). * A combination of sounds creates a morpheme (a) or even a word (b). For instance: a) [p] + [r] + [i] = [pri] (the prefix ‘pre’ that means ‘before or preceding sth’); b) [t] + [i] + [n] = [tin] (the word ‘tin’ that means ‘a chemical element, a soft silver-white metal’). BUT the sounds [p], [r], [t], [n], for example, together will not create any meaningful combination (the same – in the brought under examples). * A combination of morphemes creates a word. For instance: the prefix ‘in’ (here = ‘not’) + the root ‘explic’ (from ‘explicit’ = ‘clear’) + the suffix ‘able’ (= ‘can’) = the word ‘inexplicable’ (‘that cannot be understood or explained’). * A combination of words creates a phrase (a) or a sentence (b). For instance: a) the article ‘a’ + the noun ‘pint’ + the preposition ‘of’ + the noun ‘milk’ = the phrase ‘a pint of milk’; b) The pronoun ‘She’ + the auxiliary ‘has’ + the notional verb ‘come’ = the sentence ‘She has come’.

Relations of similarity The relations unite language elements that cannot become adjacent but can replace each other. They belong to a class of elements that has a general similarity and forms paradigmatic series. For instance: a) in the given under varieties of a phrase pint a cup of milk bottle gallon the words ‘pint’, ‘cup’, ‘bottle’, ‘gallon’ are included to the series of language elements which means some quantity of a liquid and can replace each other in accordance with the quantity that is meant. Thus, the words form a paradigmatic line of language elements;   b) in the given under sentences Jack is sleeping. Jill is reading. predicates can replace each other in accordance with a real situation, too: Jack is reading. Jill is sleeping. Though they cannot be adjacent. It is impossible to use them adjacently: Jack (Jill) is sleeping, reading. It is incorect use that has no sense. Thus, the predicates ‘is sleeping’ and ‘is reading’ form a paradigmatic class of predicates and the proper names ‘Jack’ and ‘Jill’ – the one of subjects.   c) the given under forms of the verb ‘mean’ mean, meaning, meant, has meant, is meant, had been meant, meaningful, etc. also create a paradigmatic line of forms that are variants of the word ‘mean’.

Drawing 1.3. Two general types of structural relations of language elements

Grammatical categories.

To the main notions in the study of Theoretical Grammar the following ones are included: grammatical category; grammatical form and grammatical meaning.

Grammatical Meaning differs from Lexical Meaning. The latter implies an idea or a sense that a word represents. Grammar Meaning also implies an idea or a sense but they (idea\sense) are peculiar to a class of words but not to a single word; they are united by a general propriety of the class of words. Thus, Grammatical Meaning is a generalized or abstract propriety of a class of words and unites big groups of classes of words.

For instance:

Class of words	Proprieties
The Noun	to present objects or things (abstract or concrete).
The Verb	to express action.
The Adjective	to show a sign or a quality of an object or a thing.

So, the Grammatical Meaning of the Noun is the propriety to present objects or things, the one of the Verb is the propriety to express an action, the one of the Adjective is the propriety to present a sign or a quality of an object or a thing, etc.

Grammatical Meaning is expressed through the formal indices of a class of words or through their absence. Formal indices are specific for each language and express Grammatical Meaning only when they are joined to the stems of definite parts of speech.

For instance:

The index ‘s’ in the English Language can express:

a) the Plural form of the Noun (a language - languages);

b) the Present Simple for the 3^rd Person Singular (We live. – He lives.);

c) the Possessive Case of the Noun (a friend’s advice).

Grammatical Form refers to a material expression of Grammatical Meaning (expression of a word’s form or inflexion).

For instance:

The Grammatical Form ‘has been speaking’ is a material (language) expression of the Grammatical Meaning of the Verb which is presented by the definite notional verb ‘speak’ in the Present Perfect Continuous which refers to the 3^rd Person Singular.

Grammatical Category appears on the ground of Grammatical Forms (that in their turn express Grammatical Meaning); it cannot include less than two opposite or properly correlated Grammatical Forms.

For instance:

In English there are:

a) the Category of Tense (Past, Present and Future) that includes 3 Grammatical Forms (properly correlated);

b) the Category of Aspect (Simple, Continuous, Perfect Simple and Perfect Continuous) that includes 4 Grammatical Forms (properly correlated);

c) the Category of Voice (Active and Passive) that includes 2 Grammatical Forms (opposite);

d) the Category of Number (Singular and Plural) that includes 2 Grammatical Forms (opposite), etc.

Grammatical Category presents a peculiar reflection of reality as the Category of Tense, for example, reflects a relation of an action to a moment of time; the Category of Voice reflects a relation of an agent to an action, etc.

Grammatical Category refers to the unity of two or more Grammatical Forms that are opposite or brought into proper correlation in accordance with Grammatical Meaning (example given above).

1.3.3. Language levels(table 1.2)

Table 1.2