Honey-hoarding behavior – способность к накоплению меда
Nest – зд. рой (пчел)
Dwarf honeybee – пчела карликовая
Adjacent comb frames – зд. рамки смежных сот
Neighbouring – соседний
Royal jelly – маточное молочко пчел
Venom – яд (противоядие)
Connective tissue – соединительная ткань
Multiple sclerosis – рассеянный склероз
Arthritis – артрит
To take over – зд взять на себя обязанности
Tremendous – огромный, громадный
By accident – случайно
Concern – забота, беспокойство
Super – магазин для меда, медовая надставка
Dimension – размер
Mite – клещ
Fungal, viral diseases – грибковые, вирусные заболевания
Troublesome – причиняющий беспокойство
ВАРИАНТ №2
AQUACULTURE
Aquaculture, also called Fish Farming, Fish Culture, or Mariculture, means the propagation and husbandry of aquatic organisms for commercial, recreational, and scientific purposes. The main aim of aquaculture is to ensure the production of aquacultural crops for human consumption and for use by the pharmaceutical and chemical industries. However, aquaculture is known to produce aquatic bait animals, ornamental or aquarium fishes, aquatic animals used to increase natural populations for capture and sport fisheries.
Aquaculture is an agricultural activity, despite the many differences between aquaculture and terrestrial agriculture. Aquaculture mainly produces protein crops, while starchy staple crops are the primary products of terrestrial agriculture. In addition, terrestrial animal waste is usually collected by farmers and used as fertilizer, whereas in aquaculture such waste accumulates in the culture environment. Consequently, aquaculturists are expected to manage their production units carefully in order to avoid any water deterioration or pollution, especially in areas where fish usually spawn. Moreover, aquaculturists should not make the culture organisms suffer from any stresses as a result of the intensive production.
Scientists know fish to be cold-blooded aquatic vertebrates, some species of which are especially valued as food due to high content of protein, phosphorus, iodine and vitamins A and D. In addition, a wide variety of other aquatic organisms are produced through aquaculture, including crustaceans (mainly shrimps, crayfish, and prawns), mollusks, algae (a seaweed), and some aquatic plants. In contrast to capture fisheries, aquaculture requires deliberate human intervention in the organisms' productivity to result in yields that exceed those from the natural environment alone. Stocking water with juvenile organisms (also called seed), fertilizing the water, feeding the organisms, and maintaining water quality are considered to be common examples of such intervention. The concept of pond fertilization was developed in Europe about 1500. In this process, manure is added to the water to encourage the growth of small organisms such as aquatic invertebrates and plankton, which in turn are eaten by the fish.
Aquaculture was developed more than 2,000 years ago in such countries as China, Rome, and Egypt. Formerly, aquacultural practices involved capturing wild immature specimens and then raising them under optimal conditions in which they were well fed and protected from predators and competitors for light and space. For instance, carp fingerlings (or juvenile fish) were captured from rivers, and kept in ponds or other bodies of water for further growth. It was not until 1733, however, that a German farmer successfully raised fish from eggs that he had artificially obtained and fertilized. Male and female trout were collected when ready for spawning. Eggs and sperm were pressed from their bodies and mixed together under favourable conditions. After the eggs hatched, the fish fry were taken to tanks or ponds for further cultivation. Methods have also been developed for artificial breeding of saltwater fish, and now it is possible not only to rear sea animals but also to have the complete life cycle under hatchery control.
Nowadays various methods enable aquaculturists to rear aquatic organisms artificially in fresh, brackish or salt water. In addition, aquacultural production can occur not only in natural waters but in artificial aquatic impoundments, for instance fish may be confined in earthen ponds, concrete pools, barricaded coastal waters, or cages placed into open water. In these enclosures, the fish can be supplied with adequate food and protected from many natural predators. Earthen ponds have been found to be suitable for fish and crustacean aquaculture. These ponds are usually equipped with water inlets and outlets that provide independent control of water addition and discharge. Ponds are stocked with a specific quantity of juvenile aquatic animals. Management practices range from pond fertilization, which increases the number of natural food organisms, to the supply of a complete, formulated feed that provides all nutrients necessary for growth. Animals that have reached market size are harvested from the ponds. Channel catfish grown in the United States, and marine shrimp grown in China, Central America, and South America, are often cultured in earthen ponds of about 5 to 10 hectares.
Fish can also be raised in cages or raceways. The latter are long, narrow earthen or concrete ponds that receive a continuous flow of water from a nearby artesian well, spring, or stream. Fish breeders believe raising fish in cages to be a good method in case of using the water of lakes, bays, or the open ocean. Besides, aquaculturists have shown raceways and cages to be more efficient than earthen ponds, for many more fingerlings can be stocked in them, however, nutritionally complete formulated feed must be provided to fish grown in these systems. Rainbow trout are grown in raceways in many places, including Chile, Europe, and the United States. Salmon are grown in cages, and Norway ranks the first in the world production of farmed salmon.
Recently in aquaculture there have appeared a method known as ocean ranching which means the rearing of fish and shellfish under artificially controlled conditions in order to restock lakes, seas and oceans and it is usually carried out by government agencies in the US and some other countries. According to this method young fish are bred in the controlled environment until they become mature enough to be released into the open sea. Using this approach, oysters (as a source of both food and pearls), scallops, and mussels are raised throughout the world. Moreover, ocean ranching is of great value forcing carp, trout, catfish, and tilapia. Experiments with ocean ranching the late 20th century led to the economically successful aquaculture of lobsters.
One of the main aims of aquaculture is to breed edible fish in special ponds for sale to meet the increasing demand of population for fish. However, the growth of world aquaculture has been stimulated by a number of other factors, including overfishing, destruction of habitats for some unique fish species, water pollution, and dietary changes.
Notes:
1. bait ‒ приманка, наживка
2. terrestrial ‒ происходящий на земле, на суше
3. starchy staple crops ‒ зд. основные культуры, содержащие крахмал
4. deterioration ‒ зд. ухудшение состояния или качества
5. alga (pl algae) ‒ водоросль
6. pond fertilization ‒ зд. внесение органических веществ в пруд в качестве питательной среды
7. specimen ‒ экземпляр
8. predator ‒ хищник
9. concrete pools ‒ забетонированные небольшие пруды
10. barricaded coastal waters ‒ зд. огороженные участки прибрежных вод
11. artesian well, spring, stream ‒ артезианский колодец, источник или родник/ручей
12. bay ‒ залив
13. scallop ‒ зоол. гребешок, двустворчатый моллюск
14. mussel ‒ мидия
15. tilapia ‒ тилапия (африканская пресноводная рыба семейства цихлид, используемая в пищу и широко выращиваемая сейчас во всем мире)
ВАРИАНТ №3
BASIC TYPES OF FEEDS
Animal feeds are classified into two main groups: concentrates and roughages. The former are high in energy value and are subdivided into following four groups: (a) cereal grains and their by-products (barley, corn (or maize), oats, rye, wheat), (b) high-protein oil meals or cakes (soybean, cottonseed), (c) by-products from processing of sugar beets, and (d) by-products from other industries. Roughages include such feeds (a) pasture grasses, (b) hays, (c) silage, (d) root crops, and (e) straw.
Concentrate feeds. a) Cereal grains and their by-products.In the cultural practices of North America and northern Europe, barley, corn, oats, rye, and sorghum are grown mainly as animal feed, however small quantities are processed for human consumption as well. These grains are fed, whole or ground, either singly or mixed with high-protein meals or other by-products, minerals, and vitamins, to form a complete feed for pigs and poultry or an adequate dietary supplement for ruminants and horses. By-products from commercial processing of cereal grains, for instance wheat bran, corn gluten meal1, rice bran or hulls, are used as animal feeds in large quantities.
b) High-protein meals. Vegetable seeds such as soybeans, flax-seeds, cottonseeds, sunflower seeds are produced mainly as a source of oil for human food and industrial uses. After these seeds are processed to remove the oil, the residues, which may contain from 5 per cent to less than 1 per cent of fat and 20 to 50 per cent of protein, are used as animal feeds. The latter are valuable supplements to roughages or cereal grains and other low-protein feeds because they provide the protein needed for efficient growth of production.
c) By-products of sugar beets.From the sugar-beet industry come beet tops, which are used on the farm either fresh or ensiled, and dried beet pulp and beet molasses, which are produced in the sugar factory. These are all palatable, high-quality sources of carbohydrates. In some European countries, fodder beets and some other roots are grown as animal feed.
d) Other by-product feeds.By-products of brewing industry (yeast), dairy industry (dried skim milk or whey or buttermilk) and fish industry (fish meal) contain 50 per cent or more of high-quality protein and such mineral elements as calcium and phosphorus so they are well-known as useful animal feeds.
Roughages. a) Pasture.Various pasture grasses (timothy, Sudan grass) and legumes (clovers, soybeans, sorghum), both native and cultivated, are the most important single source of feed for cattle, horses, sheep, and goats. During the growing season they supply most of the feed for these animals at a cost lower than other feeds that must be harvested, processed, and transported. Hundreds of different grasses, legumes, bushes, and trees are acceptable as feeds for grazing animals. The nutritive value of the cultivated varieties has been studied, but information is incomplete for many naturally growing plants.
b) Hay.It is produced by drying different mature grasses (such as timothy and Sudan grass) or legumes (alfalfa, clover) when they contain the maximum quantity of digestible protein and carbohydrates but before the seeds develop. The moisture content must be reduced to 22 per cent or less to prevent moulding, heating, and spoilage during storage. Legume hays are high in protein, while the grasses are lower in protein but vary greatly with the stage of maturity and level of nitrogen fertilization which have been applied to the crop. Hay is usually fed to animals when sufficient fresh pasture grass is unavailable.
c) Silage.Silage is usually made from immature plants of corn, sorghums, grasses, legumes in a storage container to exclude the air and allow fermentation to develop acetic and other acids, which preserve the moist feed. Storage may be in upright tower silos or in trenches in the ground. Best quality silage results when the forage is ensiled with a moisture content of 50 to 65 per cent. Ensiled forage can be stored for a longer period of time with lower loss of nutrients than dry hay. The nutritive value of silage depends upon the type of forage ensiled and how properly it has been made.
d) Root crops.Nowadays such root crops as mangels, rutabagas, cassava and sometimes potatoes are used less extensively as animal feed than in the past, for economic reasons. Roots are lower in dry-matter content than are most of the other feeds listed. They are relatively low in protein also and provide mostly energy.
e) Straw and hulls.Quantities of straws that remain after wheat, oats, barley, and rice crops are harvested and used as feed for cattle and other ruminants. The straws are low in protein and very high in fibre. Moreover, digestibility of straws is low. Straw is useful in maintaining mature animals during periods of shortage of other feeds, but it is too low in quality in order to be satisfactory for long periods without adding supplements. Corn stalks, cottonseed hulls, and rice hulls can also be used as sources of fibre in ruminant rations. Rice hulls are lower in value, while the others are similar to straw.
Notes: