Hunger, Achievement, and Intrinsic Motivation

Certain psychological mechanisms work together to tell us we are hungry, the liver is instrumental, as is the hypothalamus. The body monitors the use of blood sugar to pick up hunger cues. There are also learned cues that we associ­ate with eating and that thus drive us to eat. Obesity is defined as being 20 percent over one's recommended weight. There are genetic, environmental, and developmental explanations for obesity. One explanation of obesity uses the setpoint theory. As the body tries to maintain a fat-to-lean ratio that is high for some people, metabolic rates slow, making it difficult to lose weight. Another explanation is that overweight people are more sensitive to external food cues.

Cognitive behavior modification has been successfully to control weight. In such a program, the person monitors thoughts and stimuli associated with eating and attempts to modify them via a series of realistic goals designed to reduce weight.

Anorexia, an illness characterized by self-imposed severe restrictions on eating, is much more common among females, many of them adolescent, upper-middle-class high achievers. Treatment involves encouragement to gain weight and an attempt to change the thought patterns that contributed to the problem.

Bulimia involves binge eating followed by self-induced vomiting.

People differ in their need to achieve and in their fear of failure. These mo­tives dictate the extent to which they set high goals for themselves and work toward achieving them and are influenced by three factors: expectations, about performance, attributions about success and failure, and one's sense of compe­tence and self-determination.

Making up excuses for one's failures is called self-handicapping. Research shows that this strategy does little to improve performance.

It has been found that intrinsic motivation can be diminished when external rewards are offered. This is called the overjustification effect. This effect is most prevalent when the task is interesting.

Notes

monitor - контроль, устройство

cue - сигнал, стимул

obesity - ожирение

to maintain ratio - сохранять пропорции

via - через

self-induced vomiting - вызывание рвоты

fear of failure - страх потерпеть неудачу

IX. Look through the text and single out the main problems raised.

The teachers visualize themselves as transmitters of knowledge. The diffi­culties they face in fulfilling the role centre in motivation of their pupils. Inev­itably teachers find themselves trying to stimulate interest, encourage effort and prevent boredom. Teachers are not only directing present motives, but shaping future ones, the complexity of motivational patterns in human makes attaining a full understanding difficult. Yet, the understanding is vital to suc­cessful teaching.

For the child entering school a number of disparities automatically are creat­ed and with them tension systems stimulating action.

X. Read the text and then translate it in writing.

The motives of thinking investigated in psychology fall into two kinds: specific cognitive motives and non-specific motives. In the first case thinking is stimulated by interests and motives which represent cognitive needs (intellec­tual curiosity, etc.). In the second case thinking starts under the influence of more or less external factors rather than purely cognitive interests. For instance, a pupil may start preparing his lessons and racking his brains over a problem not because of a desire to learn something new, but simply because he has to com­ply with the adults' demands, for fear of falling behind his friends, etc. Yet whatever the initial motivation of thinking, an individual once engaged in the thinking process falls under the influence of cognitive motives proper. It often happens that a pupil sits down to his lessons only under compulsion, yet subsequently he develops a purely cognitive interest in what he is doing, reading or solving.

In summary, an individual starts thinking under the influence of these or those needs and gradually develops over more profound and strong motives for cognition.

Unit 15

Sleep

Цель – формирование представлений студентов о сне как психологическом состоянии, использование знания иностранного языка в профессиональной деятельности и профессиональной коммуникации.

Key words

puzzle	озадачивать, ставить в тупик
outwardly	снаружи, внешне
calm	спокойный
occasionally	случайно, нерегулярно
alternate	чередовать(ся)
entirely	совершенно, совсем
accidentally	случайно
onset	начало
dart	быстро двигаться
rapid	быстрый
eventually	в конечном счете, в итоге
acquire	приобретать
breathing	дыхание
speculate	размышлять
average	средний
dream	видеть сон
coin the tern	придумывать новый термин

Text

We may not give it a moment's thought, but most of us will probably spend the third of our lives asleep. Yet the nature of sleep has puzzled mankind for thousands of years; it is only in the last quarter of a century that researchers have made scientific attempts to investigate this world, trying to find out why some people have enormous difficulty falling asleep, while others find it impos­sible to stay awake. Far from being a passive state, sleep is a remarkably active one. While the sleeper is outwardly calm, the electrical activity of the brain never stops. As the sleep becomes deeper and deeper, the brainwaves become larger and more spread out.

While the sleeper still thinks thoughts and moves occasionally the metabol­ic processes slow down and the heartbeat drops until deep sleep is reached.

Every day every human being experiences two kinds of sleep that alternate rhythmically throughout the entire sleep period. The discovery of the two kinds of sleep occurred almost accidentally at the University of Chicago. In 1952 Dr. Kleitman became interested in the slow rolling eye movements that accompany sleep onset and decided to look for these eye movements throughout the night to determine whether they were related to the depth or quality of sleep. An entirely new kind of eye movement was notices at certain times during night the eyes began to dart about furiously beneath the closed lids.

Dr. Kleitman coined the term "REM" (for rapid-eye-movement sleep) to de­fine the phenomenon he and his colleagues observed. The other kind eventually acquired the name "NREM" sleep. The "NREM" state is often called "quiet sleep", because of the slow, regular breathing, the general absence of body movement, and the slow, regular brain activity. The body is not paralyzed during NREM sleep. The first sleep of the night is always NREM sleep, which must progress through its various stages before the first REM period occurs. REM sleep, which has been called "active sleep" is an entirely different state of exist­ence. At the onset of REM sleep the sleeper's body is still immobile, but we can see small, convulsive twitches of his face and fingertips.

Experts speculate that REM sleep protects us from acting out our dreams and hurting ourselves, that it is not really sleep at all, but a state in which the subject is awake, but paralyzed and hallucinating. The sleeper's breathing be­comes irregular - very fast, then slow - he may even appear to stop breathing for several seconds. If you gently pull back the eyelids the sleeper seems to be actually, looking at something. Cerebral blood flow and brain temperature soar to new heights, but large muscles of the body are completely paralyzed: arms, legs, and trunk cannot move.

The NREM-REM cycle varies from 70 to II0 minutes but averages around 90 min. In the early part of the night sleep is dominated by the NREM state, but as the night progresses, the periods of quiet sleep become shorter and the REM episodes longer. The first REM period lasts 10 min., but by early morning they can last as long as an hour. So we are believed to go into REM sleep and dream roughly every 90 min. all night long. So most of us sleep in two distinct ways: REM sleep, when we dream, and "quiet sleep" when we simply sleep.

EXERCISES