The Characteristics of the English Law.

The United Kingdom does not have a single legal system. The law in Scotland was influenced by the Roman law and is different from the law of England, Wales and Northern Ireland.

The English legal system is centralised through a court structure which is common to the whole country.

Some important characteristics of the English law are:

English law is based on the common lawtradition. By this we mean a system of ‘judge made’ law which is continuously developed through the decisions of judges in the cases brought before them. These judicial precedentsare an important source of law in the English legal system.

Common law systems are different from the civil law systems of

Western Europe and Latin America. In these countries the law is codifiedor systematically collected to form a consistent body of legal rules.

English judges have an important role in developing case law and stating the meaning of Acts of Parliament.

English judges are independent of the government and the people appearing before them. This allows them to make impartial decisions.

Court procedure in England is accusatorial. This means that judges do not investigate the cases before them but reach a decision based only on the evidence presented to them by the parties to the dispute. This is called the adversarialsystem of justice.

It can be compared to the inquisitorialprocedure of some other European systems where the function of the judges is to investigate the case and to collect evidence.

T e x t 2

Who is Who in the Law?

If you are prosecutedfor a crimein Britain, you may meet the following people during your process through the courts:

MAGISTRATES. Magistrates are unpaid judges, usually chosen from well–respected people in the local community. They are not legally qualified. They are guided on points of lawby an official, the Clerk.

SOLICITORS.After the suspectwas arrested, the first person he/ she needs to see is a solicitor. Solicitors are qualified lawyers who advisethe person and help prepare the defence case.

BARRISTERS. In more serious cases, or where there are special difficulties, it is usual for the solicitor to hire a barristerto defend the accused. The barrister is trainedin the law and in the skillsrequired to argue a casein court.

JURORS. A juryconsists of twelve men and women from the local community. They sit in the Crown Court, with a judge, and listen to witnessesfor the defence and prosecutionbefore decidingwhether the accused is guilty or innocent.

JUDGES. Judges are trained lawyersnearly always exbarristers, who sit in the Crown Court and Appeal Court. The judge rules on points of law, and makes sure that the trialis conductedproperly. He/she does not decide on the guiltor innocenceof the accused – that is the jury's job. However, if the jury findthe accused guilty, then the judge will pass sentence.

T e x t 3

Solicitors and Barristers

England is unique in having two different kinds of lawyers. They are solicitors and barristers.

If a person has a legal problem, he goes to see a solicitor. Almost every town has at least one. In fact, there are about 60,000 solicitors in Britain.

Many problems are dealt with exclusively by a solicitor. For instance, the solicitor deals with petty crimesand some matrimonial mattersin magistrates’ courts. He prepares the case and the evidence. He may represent his clientin the lower courts. In a civil action, he can speak in the county court, when the case is one of divorceor recoveringsome debts. Besides, a solicitor deals with other matters. He does the legal work involved in buying a house, he writes legal letters for you, he helps you to make a will, etc.

Barristers are different from solicitors. Barristers are expertsin the interpretation of the law. They adviseon really difficult points, and conduct legal proceedings in the higher courts. Barristers are rather remote figures. A barrister’s client can come to him only via a solicitor.

Barristers do not have public offices in any street. They work in chambers, often in London. There are about 6,000 barristers in England. Usually only barristers can become judges in English courts.

Выполните письменно свой вариант контрольной работы:

Контрольная работа №1

Вариант 1

Упр. I:Перепишите следующие предложения, раскрывая скобки. Переведите предложения письменно.

1. Crimes committed by the juveniles (try / are tried) in juvenile courts.

2. The Lord Chancellor (appoints, is appointed) Justices of the Peace.

3. Some minor cases (hear / are heard) by 2 magistrates.

4. This case (will consider / will be considered) next week.

5. Justices of the Peace (choose / are chosen) from ordinary people

6. Magistrates (advise / are advised) on points of law by the clerk of the court.

7. A serious crime (committed / was committed) last week in this town.

8. Twelve men and women (will select / will be selected) from the local

community to try this case.

Упр. II:Заполните пропуски правильной видо-временной формой глагола. Перепишите и переведите предложения.

1. Magistrates ……….. minor cases. will be tried

2. They ………. this case two days ago. is tried

3. A serious case ………. in the Crown Court will try

last month. try

4. The County Court ………. this case in 2 days. tried

5. As this case is connected with property was tried

rights it ……… by the High Court.

6. If an offender is under seventeen, his case …… the juvenile courth

Упр. III.Перепишите следующее предложения; подчеркните Participle I и Participle II и установите функции каждого из них, т.е. укажите, является ли оно определением, обстоятельством или частью глагола-сказуемого. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1) The fine paid amounted to three hundred dollars.

2) The police investigating the case are looking for three men.

3) All criminal trials in Britain are held before a judge and a jury

consisting of twelve ordinary people.

4) Knowing English well, he translated the text without a dictionary.

Упр. IV. Переведите текст письменно.

Judges in Great Britain.

In Britain, the vast majority of judges (that is, the people who decide what should be done with people who commit crimes) are unpaid. They are called “Magistrates”, or “Justices of the Peace” (JPs).

They are ordinary citizens who are selected not because they have any legal training but because they have “common sense” and understand their fellow human beings. They work voluntarily. They are appointed by the Lord Chancellor on the recommendation of local advisory committees.

A case is usually heard by a bench of three magistrates who are advised on the law by the clerk of the court. There are about 30,000 magistrates and they hear over 90 per cent of criminal cases.

Besides, there is a small proportion of district judges. These are fulltime paid judges appointed by the Queen on the recommendation of the Lord Chancellor. There are about 100 district judges in England and Wales. They sit in the magistrates’ courts in the larger cities, particularly in

London. A case is usually heard by a single district judge. Barristers or solicitors of seven years’ experience can be appointed district judges. A distinctive feature of the British system in comparison with many continental systems is that it does not have law schools training judges.

Judges are chosen from lawyers who gained considerable experience as legal practitioners before they are appointed to the judiciary.

In continental systems a law graduate can choose to be a judge at the beginning of his/her career. In Great Britain they cannot.

The vast majority of judges are magistrates. A small proportion of judges are not magistrates. They are called “High Court Judges” and they deal with the most serious crimes, such as those for which the criminal must be sent to prison for more than a year. High Court Judges are paid salaries by the state and have considerable legal training.

The work of judges is not easy. They even make mistakes sometimes. These mistakes are often overruled by appeal courts. People usually say that the judge has ‘power over the lives and livelihood’ of all litigants who enter the court. . The judge’s decision may frequently affect the interests of individuals and groups of people who are not present in court. That’s why it’s true to say that the judge has burdensome responsibilities to make decisions. That’s why we say that the judge’s work is not easy.

Вариант 2

Упр. I.Перепишите следующие предложения, раскрывая скобки. Переведите предложения письменно.

1. All criminal cases (start / are started) in the magistrates’ courts.

2. This serious case (referred / was referred) to the Crown Court.

3. The jury (will decide, will be decided) on guilt or innocence of this man.

4. English law (bases / is based) on the common law tradition.

5. Accusatorial procedure (means / is meant) that judges do not investigate the cases.

6. This case (will try / will be tried ) by 2 magistrates.

7. This matrimonial matter ( dealt with / was dealt with) the solicitor.

8. A solicitor (prepares, is prepared) the case and the evidence for the trial

Упр. II.Заполните пропуски правильной видо-временной формой глагола. Перепишите и переведите предложения.

1. Baristers … really difficult matters.

2. Magistrates … on points of law by a court clerk. advised

3. I … to see a solictor on this matter yesterday. advise

4. The solictor … you how to write a will. are advised

5. If you come to see a solicitor, you … on all the will be advised

problems connected with your property. was advised

6. The solicitor … me to begin an action to recover will advise

the debt

Упр. III. Перепишите следующее предложения; подчеркните Participle I и Participle II и установите функции каждого из них, т.е. укажите, является ли оно определением, обстоятельством или частью глагола-сказуемого. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1) While entering the office they discovered that there was nobody there.

2) The evidence carefully collected and preserved was presented to the judge.

3) This is the information obtained from the victim.

4) She sent me a letter stating these facts.

Упр. IV.Переведите текст письменно.

Judicial System of the USA

The Supreme Court is the highest judicial organ of the United States and the head of the judicial branch.

The Supreme Court consists of the Chief Justice of the USA and such a number of Associate Justices as may be fixed by Congress. Power to nominate the Justices is vested in the President of the United States, and appointments are made by and with the advice and consent of the

Senate. The appointments are made for life, that is, a Justice cannot be dismissed from his/her post. A Justice may if he/she so desires, retire at the age of 70 after serving 10 years as a Federal Judge, or at the age of 65 after 15 years of service. The Supreme Court has the right to declare unconstitutional any law passed by Congress, or any order issued by the President.

The USA is divided into 13 federal judicial circuits, each one being served with a court of appeals known as the United States Court of Appeals for the circuit. Included in these 13 judicial circuits is the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia and the Court of Appeals for the

Federal Circuit.

There are about 90 district courts in the USA. Each state is comprised of one or more federal judicial districts, and in each district there is a district court. The United States district courts are the trial courts with general Federal jurisdiction over cases involving federal laws or offenses and actions between citizens of different states. Each state has at least one district court. There is also a United States district court in the District of Columbia. Only one judge is usually required to hear and decide a case in a district court, but in some kinds of cases it is required that three judges be called together to comprise the court. In districts with more than one judge, the judge senior in commission who has not reached his seventieth birthday acts as the chief judge.

II СЕМЕСТР

• модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты,

• времена группы Continuous (Present, Past, Future) в активном залоге

• времена группы Perfect (Present, Past, Future) в активном и пассивном залоге.

Выполните следующие упражнения:

I.Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на видо-временную форму глагола.

1. Why are you leaving so soon? - I'm hurrying to the University. I attend the meetings of the English Club on Fridays. 2. I've already done my shopping and now I'm cooking dinner. 3. She takes her little daughter to the kindergarten every day. 4. Somebody left the light on all night. 5. They are going to get married. 6. He is often seen in the library of the University. 7. They had packed their suitcases before I came. 8. I'm afraid we'll be late if we don't hurry. 9. The letter has just been typed. 10. He never misses his English classes as he is going to London soon and wants to speak English very well. 11. Will you be through with your exam in an hour? 12. These houses were built more than 25 years ago. 13. Were you getting ready for your exam all day long yesterday? 14. The translation will have been done by Monday. 15.English is spoken

in many countries of the world. 16. I've already passed all the exams and I’m leaving for my native town tonight. 17. The articles had been translated and typed by last Tuesday.

II.Прочитайте и переведите следующие предложения:

1. You can and you must do this work. 2. There will be no meeting after classes. You may go home. 3. May I take this book home? - I'm afraid not. 4. You needn't take a bus. You can walk there. It's not far from here. 5. There are little children in the room. You mustn't smoke here. 6. Did you have to translate the text in writing? - No, I didn't. 7.He has to get up rather early as he lives far from the University. 8. She had to stay at home yesterday because she was ill. 9. He is to make a report at the conference. 10. He needn't go to the library, I can give him the book he

needs. 11. You should be more attentive in class. 12. Kate is in hospital. You ought to go to see her. 13. I hope they will be able to speak English fluently soon. 14. Ann is still very weak. She won't be allowed to leave home. 15. He'll have to work hard to be able to pass all exams successfully. 16. Mr. Smith is to meet the delegation at the airport. 17. I couldn't go for a walk yesterday as I had to do much work about the house. 18. We are to take five tests and four exams in January. 19.Must she water the garden? - No, she needn't, it looks like rain. 20. May I smoke

here? - No, you mustn't.

III.Прочитайте и переведите следующие предложения:

1. I can't tell you the time. I've left my watch somewhere. 2.There is no point in asking him to help us. He's sold his car and hasn't yet bought a new one. 3. Have you ever been to the USA? - Not yet. 4. She's done the translation, and now she's going home. 5. We haven't met him since we finished school. 6. They've lived in Serov since they graduated from the University. 7. Have you seen them lately? - Unfortunately not. 8. Has she already passed all the exams? - Yes, she has. She has passed them with good and excellent marks. 9. Who has written out the new words from the text? - Everybody has. 10. I'm glad to meet you. - So am I. I haven't seen you for ages.

IV.Ответьте на следующие приказания по модели:

Model:Open the window! - But I've already opened it.

1. Water the flowers! 2. Cut the bread! 3. Dust the furniture! 4. Take the books to the library! 5. Translate Text 2 on Page 54! 6. Write out new words from the text! 7. Learn the poem by heart! 8. Buy a good dictionary! 9.Wash your hands! 10. Send her photo to him! 11. Read the article! 12. Listen to the latest news!

V.Найдите правильный ответ:

1. Participle II правильных глаголов образуется при помощи:

a) -ing b) -ed c) -es d) -s e) –en

2. Participle II неправильных глаголов образуется при помощи:

a) -ing b) -ed c) –es

d) по разному (вторая форма глагола)

е) по разному (третья форма глагола)

3. Какие глаголы образуют Participle II с помощью "-ed"?

a) to do b) to work c) to be d) to see e) to study

4. Какие глаголы образуют Participle II по разному?

a) to meet b) to ask c) to begin d) to know e) to translate

5. Present Perfect используется:

a) когда есть результат законченного действия, но время действия не указано

b) со словами "already, yet, just, ever, never"

c) со словами "yesterday, last year, last month, last week, ... days (weeks, months, years) ago"

d) со словами "today, this week, this month, this year"

e) если мы спрашиваем, когда действие произошло

6. При образовании Perfect смысловой глагол должен быть в форме:

a) Participle I (writing, opening)

b) Infinitive with "to" (to write, to open)

c) Participle II (written, opened)

d) Infinitive without "to" (write, open)

e) Past Indefinite (wrote, opened)

7. Вспомогательным глаголом для образования времен Perfect служит:

a) to do b) to be c) to have d) to get d) to become

8. Найдите инфинитив в Perfect Active:

a) to be elected b) to have elected c) to have been elected

d) to have been electing e) to be being elected

9. Найдите глаголы в Present Perfect Active:

a) is written

b) has written

c) have written

d) has been written

e) have been written

10. Найдите предложения в Present Perfect Active:

a) I haven't heard the news yet.

b) Pete has just bought a new dictionary.

c) Ann bought a new dress yesterday.

d) Who has taken my pen?

e) Helen has been bought a new dress.

11. Какой вспомогательный глагол нужен для следующего предложения : "We ... never been to Moscow"

a) shall b) were c) have d) has e) did

12. Найдите правильную форму глагола для следующего предложения: "He ... Ann this week"

a) didn't meet b) haven't met c) hasn't met

d) doesn't meet e) hasn't been met

13. Найдите правильный вопрос к подчеркнутому члену предложения:

"He has bought a few English books this week"

a) Who has bought a few English books?

b) What books has he bought?

c) When did he buy a few English books?

d) How many English books has he bought?

e) What has he bought this week?

14. Найдите правильную форму глагола для следующего предложения: "She ... to her native town since 1995"

a) was not b) haven't been c) had not been

d) hasn't been e) were not

15. Найдите правильный ответ к следующему вопросу: "Has your brother helped you?"

a) Yes, he did. b) Yes, he is. c) Yes, he was.

d) Yes, he does. e) Yes, he has

VIПрочитайте и переведите следующие предложения:

1. I had studied English before I entered the University. 2. They had arrived at the station by 5 o'clock. 3. Bob had written the report by Sunday. 4.The teacher had given the pupils their home task before the bell rang. 5. I had heard it was a good film so we decided to go and see it. 6. He felt much happier once he had found a new job. 7. Mother had cooked dinner by the time we got hungry. 8. Ann had had dinner by that time. 9.They had sent all the invitation cards long before the wedding party. 10. The children had already fallen asleep when their parents returned home after the concert.

Прочитайте и переведите следующие тексты:

T e x t 1

Types of Criminal Offences

There are three types of criminal offences: summary, indictableand triable either way. The nature of the offence determines the mode of trial.

Summary offences are the less serious offences.These offences are tried in the magistrates’ court, without a jury, before a bench of two or three lay magistrates or by one district judge. The sentences of the magistrates’ courts are limited to imposing a fineof up to 5,000 pounds or a prison sentence of six months.

Indictable offences are the most serious offences. Examples are murder, manslaughter, rapeand arson.The procedure for trying these offences begins in the magistrates’ court. This court has the duty to assess whether there is evidenceor not to send the accused for trial by jury. If there is enough evidence, a trial will take place in the Crown court before a judge and a jury. This procedure is called “the committal,”that is the referring of a case from a magistrates’ court for trial at the Crown court following a preliminary investigationby the magistrates.

Certain types of offences are triable either way: either as an ‘indictable offence’ or as a ‘summary offence’. When an offence is triable either way, the magistrates’ court must decide, if the case should be tried on indictmentor summarily. Even if they decide that they can hear the case themselves, they must give the defendant the choice of opting for trial upon indictment before a jury. These include offences of deception, theft, dangerous drivingand some others.

T e x t 2

Kinds of Crimes in the USA

The word ‘crime’ is generally associated with the wrongdoingbut not every type of wrongis a crime. For instance, failing to fulfil a term of a contract is a wrong, but it is purely a dispute between individuals.

However, stealingfrom another person is also a wrong but it falls under the criminal law because such actions are offences which can result in prosecution.

Thus, we may say a crime is an act that violatesthe criminal law of a community. Every crime is a crime against the state.

In general, there are two kinds of crime. Felonies, which include murder, robberyand arson, are the most serious. Anyone who commitsa felony can be sent to a state prison. In some states certain felonies carry the death penalty.

Misdemeanorsare less serious. The penalty is a fine or imprisonmentof up to a year in jail. Shopliftingand driving while drunk are examples of misdemeanors.

In cases where it is not clear whether the crime is a felony or misdemeanor, it is a judge whomakes the final decision.

Crimes may also be classified as being against persons or against property.Crimes against person include assault, murder and kidnapping.

Property crimes include burglary,robbery and auto theft.

Crime in the USA is often big business. Criminal organizations such as the Mafia and the Cosa Nostra are highly organized groups who control criminal activities in a community. Many criminals today hide behind respectable businesses and use them as cover-ups for their profitable

criminal activities.

T e x t 3

Crimes in the USA

In the United States the causesof serious crimes are hotly debated, as elsewhere. Among them are unemployment, drug-abuse, poverty, inadequate police enforcement,ineffective courts, racial discrimination, television and “a general decline in middle-class values”.

Many communities have started their own campaigns against crime.

They encourage their citizens to participate in crime preventionprograms and to report crimes. Several civil rights groups actively support such “self-help” campaigns. In some neighborhoods, citizens participate in “neighborhood watch”programs and organize groups to patrol the streets.

Public opinion pollsshow that most Americans feel handgunsare responsible for the high murder rate. A majority of Americans, some 70 percent, favor laws banningthe private ownership of all handguns. At present, there are about 23,000 state and local gun laws and ordinances throughout the US. Some states only prohibitcarrying handguns. In others owners must register all handguns and have a license to carry them. In some communities people are not allowedto own any handguns.

Many Americans cite the Second Amendment to the Constitution:

“…the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed”.

They say “Guns don’t kill, people do”.

Контрольная работа № 2

Вариант 1

Упр.I.Перепишите следующие предложения, раскрывая скобки. Переведите предложения письменно.

1. The suspect … just (has questioned / has been questioned) …by the police.

2. The magistrate … already (has committed / has been committed) … the case to the Crown court.

3. All the evidence (had collected / had been collected ) against the accused by the beginning of the trial.

4. The accused (has appealed / has been appealed) against the conviction and the severity of the sentence.

5. The defendant (has been presented / has presented) by a famous barrister.

6. The court … just (has been released / has released) … the accused.

7. The magistrate … just (has decided / has been decided) there is enough evidence to answer a case.

8. The jury … just (has been found / has found) the accused guilty.

Упр.II.Заполните пропуски правильной видовременной формой глагола. Перепишите и переведите предложения.

1. Dangerous driving … in the 1. had tried

magistrates’ court this week.

2. The court … this offence on 2. will have been tried

indictment because it’s serious. 33

3. By Friday this case … 3. has been tried

4. When we came, the case of arson … 4. has tried

5. The court … the case by last May. 5. had been tried

6. The magistrate … these minor 6. will have tried

offences summarily.

Упр.IIIПерепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видо-временную форму и залог глагола-сказуемого. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1) According to English law, people are innocent until they are proved guilty.

2) A burglar alarm has been installed in the apartment.

3) This event is being reported about in all newspapers.

4) A number of measures to strengthen the criminal justice system had already been taken by the beginning of the year

5) The convicted was taken to prison after his appeal had been rejected by the higher court.

6) He knew groundless charges were being made against him.

7) By Sunday the article will have been published in the newspaper.

8) The case was being prepared for the trial when the investigator was given some new material

Упр.IV.Составьте предложения по модели и переведите их

Model 1: I had to work very hard last week.

To meet a relative at the station yesterday, to make a report at the last seminar, to take three exams last week

Model 2: I am to come at the examination at 10 a.m.

To have an English class on Tuesday, to go to the library before classes, to translate two texts at home.

Model 3: You should be more attentive in class.

To help mother about the house, to work better, to sleep at least seven hours.

Упр. V.Перепишите предложения, переведите их на русский язык, помня о разных значениях глаголов to be, to have.

1) The preliminary survey is to acquaint the investigating officer with the entire scene and its important details.

2) She will have to come home earlier.

3) The value of physical evidence is based on the law of probabilities.

Упр. VIПереведите текст письменно:

What is a Crime

Crime is a term that refers to misconduct forbidden by law. Murder – also called homicide – is a crime in all countries. Other crimes include: stealing a car, resisting arrest, possessing or selling illegal drugs, appearing nude on a public street, driving while under the influence of alcohol, and robbing a bank.

The list of acts considered crimes is constantly changing. Today, it is becoming a serious crime to pollute the air and water. Pollution caused few problems and received little attention in preindustrial times.

From a legal standpoint, a crime is a violation of the criminal law. Such law deals with actions considered harmful to society. On the other hand, most harmful acts causing injury to another person are violations of the civil law. Some overlapping occurs in this classification. For example, murder and rape are committed against individuals, but the law considers them crimes because they threaten society. For this reason, a crime is regarded as an offence against the state.

An act is viewed as a crime if enough evidence exists to make a police officer, a prosecutor, or a judge believe that a violation of criminal law has taken place.

Вариант 2

Упр. I.Перепишите следующие предложения, раскрывая скобки. Переведите предложения письменно.

1. Many organizations … (have been started / have started) the campaigns against smoking.

2. Crime prevention programs … (have launched / have been launched) by the law enforcement bodies this year.

3. By the end of this year smoking … (will have prohibited / will have been prohibited) in all offices and institutions.

4. He registered his handgun as soon as he … (had bought / had been bought) it.

5. The program ‘neighborhood watch’ … (will have been begun / will have begun) by the beginning of the next month.

6. Public … (has supported / has been supported) the program of crime prevention.

7. The sentence … (has been limited / has limited) to imposing a fine of 3,000 pounds.

8. As there … (had been collected / had collected) enough evidence, the court sent the accused for trial by jury.

Упр. II.Заполните пропуски правильной видо-временной формой глагола. Перепишите и переведите предложения.

1. The sentence … just 1. will have passed

2. The sentence … by next Friday. 2. has been passed

3. The judge … the sentence of 2-year 3. had been passed

imprisonment.

4. The sentence … when we came. 4. has passed

5. The court … the judgement on

Probation by last Thursday. 5. had passed

6. The court … the sentence by next

Tuesday.

6. will have been passed

Упр. III.Перепишите следующие предложения, определите в каждом из них видо-временную форму и залог глагола – сказуемого. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1) Thousands of frauds are committed every year.

2) This grammar rule is being discussed at the lesson today.

3) The case has been investigated successfully.

4) Different kinds of offences were reflected in Crime Statistics

5) A great part of work is devoted to finding missing or wanted persons.

6) The guilt of the suspect has been proved by the investigating officers.

7) A number of measures to strengthen the criminal justice system were being taken by the Government for a few years.

8) The Common Law offences had been codified by 1986.

Упр. IV.Составьте предложения по модели и переведите их

Model 1: I had to work very hard last week.

To stay after classes on Monday, to translate the text in writing, to

read up for the seminar in the library

Model 2: I am to come at the examination at 10 a.m.

To take five tests and four exams in January, to visit grandparents

next week end, to get up early on Sunday

Model 3: You should be more attentive in class.

To use a dictionary when reading a new text, to pay more attention to

studies, to attend all lectures and tutorials

Упр. V.Перепишите предложения, переведите их на русский язык, помня о разных значениях глаголов to be, to have.

1) The preliminary survey is to acquaint the investigating officer with the entire scene and its important details.

2) She will have to come home earlier.

3) The value of physical evidence is based on the law of probabilities

Упр.VIПереведите текст письменно

The Rate of Crime

Crime is one of the world’s oldest social problems. Almost every generation is threatened by increasing crime and violence. However, no country has yet developed reliable methods for measuring the volume and trend of crime.

Countries vary greatly in their definition of crime and in the reliability of their crime statistics. Conditions that effect the amount of crime also vary from one country to another. Such conditions include the proportion of people living in cities, the proportion of young and old people in the population, and the degree of conflict among various cultural, economic, and racial groups.

Statistics show that crime rates for both violent crimes and property crimes are rising in most countries. Comparison of the crime rates of various nations indicate that increases in crime accompany increases in the rate of social change. The crime rate stays relatively stable in traditional societies.

Statistics about crime are based on complaints to the police, offences observed by the police, and arrests of suspects. Unfortunately, much crime goes unreported, including offences against businesses, organizations, and public agencies and against public order and morality.