The Subjective Infinitive Construction.
The Subjective Infinitive Construction (traditionally called the Nominative-with-the-Infinitive Construction) is a construction in which the infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun in the common case or a pronoun in the nominative case..
The peculiarity of this construction is that it does not serve as one part of the sentence: one of its component parts has the function of the subject, the other forms part of a compound verbal predicate.
Edith is said to resemble me. (Dickens)
Говорят, что Эдит похожа на меня.
THE USE OF THE SUBJECTIVE INFINITIVE CONSTRUCTION
The Subjective Infinitive Construction is used with the following groups of verbs in the Passive Voice:
1. With verbs denoting sense perception: to see, to hear etc.
Mr. Bob Sawyer was heard to laugh heartily. (Dickens)
Слышно было, как весело смеется Боб Сойер.
The rider was seen to disappear in the distance.
Видно было, как всадник скрылся вдали.
If a process is expressed Participle I Indefinite Active is used.
Tess’s father was heard approaching at that moment. (Hardy)
В этот момент они услышали, что подходит отец Тэсс.
2. With verbs denoting mental activity: to think, to consider, to know, to expect, to believe, to suppose.
He was thought to be honest and kindly. (Dreiser)
Его считали честным и добрым человеком.
My father... was considered by many to be a great man. (Gow and
D’Usseau)
Многие считали моего отца незаурядным человеком.
Philip Bosinney was known to be a young man without fortune.
(Galsworthy)
Было известно, что Филипп Босини — молодой человек без состояния.
I know that Priam Farll is supposed to have been buried in Westminster
Abbey. (Bennett)
Я знаю, что считают (предполагают), будто бы Приам Фарл похоронен в
Вестминстерском Аббатстве.
The manuscript is believed to have been written in the 15th century.
Полагают, что эта рукопись написана в XV веке.
3. With the verb to make.
Little Abraham was aroused... and made to put on his clothes... (Hardy)
Маленького Эбрахама разбудили и заставили одеться.
4. With the verbs to say and to report.
The gods had given Irene dark-brown eyes and golden hair, which is said to
be the mark of a weak character. (Galsworthy)
Боги наделили Ирэн темно-карими глазами и золотистыми волосами,
что, как говорят, является признаком слабости характера.
From these examples we can see that in translating sentences containing the Subjective Infinitive Construction after verbs in the Passive Voice a complex sentence is mostly used: its principal clause is of the type which in Russian syntax is called ‘indefinite personal’ (неопределенно-личное предложение).
After verbs in the Passive Voice the Subjective Infinitive Construction is more characteristic of literary than of colloquial style, except with the verbs to suppose, to expect, to make; with these verbs the Subjective Infinitive can be found both in fiction and in colloquial language.
The Subjective Infinitive Construction is used with the word-groups to be likely, to be sure, and to be certain.
The parish is not likely to quarrel with him for the right to keep the child.
(Eliot)
Приход вряд ли будет оспаривать у него право содержать этого ребенка.
But he is sure to marry her. (Hardy)
Но он бесспорно (несомненно) женится на ней.
This fire is certain to produce a panic in the morning. (Dreiser)
Этот пожар бесспорно (несомненно) вызовет утром панику.
Sentences of this kind are rendered in Russian by a simple sentence with a modal word. Note the difference between:
| He is sure to come. | Он обязательно придет. |
| He is sure of coming. | Он уверен, что он придет. |
The Subjective Infinitive Construction is used with the following pairs of synonyms: to seem and to appear; to happen and to chance (the latter is literary); to prove and to turn out.
They seemed to have quite forgotten him already. (Hardy)
Они, казалось (по-видимому), уже совершенно забыли его.
Her eyes appeared always to gaze beyond, and far beyond. (E. Bronte)
Ее глаза, казалось, всегда были устремлены куда-то далеко-далеко.
Mrs. Cowperwood, in spite of the difference in their years, appeared to be a
fit mate for him at this time. (Dreiser)
Несмотря на разницу в возрасте, миссис Каупервуд в этот период его
жизни, по-видимому (казалось), была для него подходящей женой.
Only yesterday we happened to see Soames Forsyte. (Galsworthy)
Только вчера мы случайно встретили Сомса Форсайта.
By 11 o’clock her mother had chanced to look into her room. (Dreiser)
Около 11 часов мать случайно заглянула к ней в комнату.
The experiment proved to be a failure. (Collins)
Опыт оказался неудачным.
They all turned out to be good fighters. (Gow and D’Usseau)
Все они оказались хорошими бойцами.
N o t e. — The infinitive in sentences with the Subjective Infinitive
Construction cannot refer to a future action except with verbs and word-
groups whose meaning allows of it: to expect, to be sure (certain), to be likely.
We are sure to come at the heart of the matter. (Dickens)
Мы обязательно доберемся до сути дела.
Не is expected to give us an answer to-morrow.
Ожидают, что он даст нам ответ завтра.
§ 34. The for-to-Infinitive Construction.
The for-to-Infinitive Construction is a construction in which the infinitive is in predicate relation to a noun or pronoun preceded by the preposition for.
In translating this construction into Russian a subordinate clause or an infinitive is used.
The construction can have different functions in the sentence.1It can be:
1 All the observations concerning the infinitive as subject, object, attribute and adverbial modifier of result hold good when these parts of the sentence are expressed by the for-to-Infinitive Construction.
1. Subject (often with the introductory it).
For me to ask would be treason, and for me to be told would be treason.
(Wilson)
Если бы я спросила, это было бы предательством; если бы мне сказали,
это было бы предательством.
I sometimes think it is a shame for people to spend so much money this
way. (Dreiser)
Я часто думаю, что стыдно людям тратить на это так много денег.
2. Predicative.
That was for him to find out.(Eliot)
Выяснить это должен был он.
3. Complex object.
He waited for her to speak.(Hardy)
Он ждал, когда она заговорит.
Не asked for the papers to be brought.
Он попросил принести бумаги.
I am very anxious for Mr. Headstone to succeed in allhe undertakes.
(Dickens)
Мне очень хочется, чтобы мистеру Хедстону удавалось все, за что он
берется.
Erik saw that she was impatient for him to be gone.(Wilson)
Эрик видел, что она с нетерпением ожидает, когда он уйдет.
I hope you won’t think it very odd for a perfect stranger to talk to you like
this.(Maugham)
Я надеюсь, вы не сочтете странным, что совершенно незнакомый вам
человек разговаривает с вами таким образом.
4. Attribute.
The best thing for you to dois to bide here with your load.
I’ll send somebody to help you. (Hardy)
Самое лучшее, что вы можете сделать, — это подождать здесь с вашей
поклажей. Я пришлю кого-нибудь помочь вам.
There was really nothing for him to dobut what he had done. (Dreiser)
Ему действительно ничего не оставалось делать, кроме того, что он
сделал (единственное, что ему оставалось сделать, было то, что он
сделал).
There’s nobody here for him to play with.(Hemingway)
Здесь нет никого, с кем он мог бы поиграть.
Не had even had a comfortable house for her(his niece) to live in. (Trоllоре)
У него даже был удобный дом, где она могла бы жить.
5. Adverbial modifier:
(a) ofpurpose.
Here’s the thermometer: they’ve left it for the doctor to seeinstead of
shaking it down. (Shaw)
Вот термометр; его не стряхнули, чтобы доктор мог посмотреть
температуру.
Не stepped aside for me to pass. (Du Maurier)
Он отошел, в сторону, чтобы я могла пройти.
(b) of result.
The pleasure of accompanying you was too great a temptation for me to
resist.(Collins)
Удовольствие сопровождать вас было так велико, что я не мог ему
противиться.
But he had consented, and it was too late for him now to recede. (Trollope)
Но он уже дал согласие, и теперь было поздно отступать.
Не spoke loud enough for you to hear.
Он говорил достаточно громко, чтобы вы могли его слышать.
His experience of women was great enough for him to be awarethat the
negative often meant nothing more than the preface to the affirmative.
(Hardy)
Он достаточно хорошо знал женщин, чтобы понимать, что отказ бывает
часто лишь преддверием к согласию.
§ 35. With the expressions to be sorry, to be glad the infinitive is used only if the subject of the sentence represents at the same time the doer of the action expressed by the infinitive.
I am glad (pleased) to have gota ticket for the concert.
I am glad to have seen you.(Dreiser)
I am very sorry to have donea man wrong, particularly when it can’t be
undone. (Dickens)
In other cases a clause is used with to be glad and to be sorry.
I am glad you got a ticket for the concert.
“I am glad you think so,” returned Doyce, with his grey eye looking kind and
bright. (Dickens)
Chapter IX
THE ADVERB
§ 1. The adverb is a part of speech which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points out some characteristic features of an action or a quality.
The function of the adverb is that of an adverbial modifier. An adverb may modify verbs (verbals), words of the category of state, adjectives, and adverbs.
Annette turned her neck lazily, touched one eyelash and said: “He amuses
Winifred.” (Galsworthy)
And glancing sidelong at his nephew he thought... (Galsworthy)
For a second they stood with hands hard clasped. (Galsworthy)
And now the morning grew so fair, and all things were so wide awake.
(Dickens)
The man must have had diabolically acute hearing. (Wells)
Harris spoke quite kindly and sensibly about it. (Jerome)
§ 2.As to their structure adverbs are divided into:
(1) simple adverbs (long, enough, then, there, etc.);
(2) derivative adverbs (slowly, likewise, forward, headlong, etc.); (The most productive adverb-forming suffix is ‑ly. There are also some other suffixes: ‑wards, ‑ward; ‑long, ‑wise.)
(3) compound adverbs (anyhow, sometimes, nowhere, etc.);
(4) composite adverbs (at once, at last, etc.).
§ 3. Some adverbs have degrees of comparison.
(a) If the adverb is a word of one syllable, the comparative degree is formed by adding ‑er and the superlative by adding -est.
fast — faster — fastest
hard — harder — hardest
(b) Adverbs ending in ‑ly form the comparative by means of more and the superlative by means of most.
wisely — more wisely — most wisely
beautifully — more beautifully — most beautifully
(c) Some adverbs have irregular forms of comparison:
well — better — best
badly — worse — worst
much — more — most
little — less — least
§ 4. According to their meaning adverbs fall under several groups:
(1) adverbs of time (today, tomorrow, soon, etc.);
(2) adverbs of repetition or frequency (often, seldom, ever, never, sometimes, etc.);
(3) adverbs of place and direction (inside, outside, here, there, backward, upstairs, etc.);
(4) adverbs of cause and consequence (therefore, consequently, accordingly, etc.);
(5) adverbs of manner (kindly, quickly, hard, etc.);
(6) adverbs of degree, measure and quantity (very, enough, half, too, nearly, almost, much, little, hardly, rather, exceedingly, quite, once, twice, firstly, secondly, etc.).
Three groups of adverbs stand aside: interrogative, relative and conjunctive adverbs.
Interrogative adverbs (where, when, why, how) are used in special questions.
Conjunctive and relative adverbs are used to introduce subordinate clauses.1
Some adverbs are homonymous with prepositions, conjunctions2 and words of the category of state.3
1 See Chapter XVII, The Complex Sentence.
2 See Chapter XII, The Preposition.
3 See Chapter VI, The Words of the Category of State.
Chapter X
THE MODAL WORDS
§ 1.The modal wordsexpress the attitude of the speaker to the reality, possibility or probability, of the action he speaks about.
§ 2. According to their meaning modal words fall under the following main groups:
(1) words expressing certainty (certainly, surely, assuredly, of course, no doubt, apparently, undoubtedly, etc.);
(2) words expressing supposition(perhaps, maybe, possibly, probably, etc.);
(3) words showing whether the speaker considers the action he speaks about desirable or undesirable (happily — unhappily; luckily — unluckily; fortunately — unfortunately).
§ 3. In the sentence modal words are used as parentheses.1Sometimes they are used as sentence-words.2
1 See Chapter XV, The Simple Sentence.
2 Modal words used as sentence-words are similar to the words yes and no expressing affirmation and negation, which are also sentence-words.
Certainly you’ll admit we could finish all this in a month. (Wilson)
“Will you allow me to detain you one moment,” said he. “Certainly,”replied
the unwelcome visitor. (Dickens)
§ 4. Most modal words have developed from adverbs, so very often there exists a formal identity between modal words and adverbs. For instance such modal words as certainly, surely, happily are homonymous with the adverbs certainly, surely, happily.
Such modal words as possibly, probably, indeed, also derived from adverbs, have no corresponding homonymous adverbs because the latter ceased to be used in Modern English.
Though formally identical with adverbs, modal words differ from them in meaning and syntactical function.
If he were not married as happilyas he was, might notsomething come of it?
(Dreiser) (ADVERB)
...she hauled me to the washstand, inflicted a merciless, but happilybrief
scrub on my face and hands with soap water, and a coarse towel... (Ch.
Bronte) (MODAL WORD)
Lamlein rose. “We have fulfilled our obligations,” he said pompously, and yet
not quite certainly.(Heym) (ADVERB)
Soames smiled. Certainly, uncle Jolyon had a way with him. (Galsworthy)
(MODAL WORD)
Slowly, surely, with the secret inner process that works the destruction of an
old tree, the poison of the wounds to his happiness, his will, his pride, had
corroded the comely edifice of his philosophy. (Galsworthy) (ADVERB)
Over the ridge she would find him. Surelyshe would find him over the ridge.
(Wells) (MODAL WORD)
Chapter XI
THE INTERJECTION
§ 1. The interjection is a part of speech which expresses various emotions without naming them.
§ 2. According to their meaning interjections fall under two main groups, namely emotional interjections and imperative interjections.
1. Emotional interjections express the feelings of the speaker. They are: ah, oh, eh, bravo, alas, etc.
...A man jumped on top of the barricade and waving exuberantly shouted,
“Americans! Hurrah!”(Heym) (joy)
Alas!The white house was empty and there was a bill in the window “To let”.
(Dickens) (sorrow)
Psha!There’s no possibility of being witty without a little, ill nature.
(Sheridan) (contempt)
Oh,bother! I can’t see anyone now. Who is it? (Shaw) (indignation)
“Dear me!” says Mr. Chillip meekly smiling with something shining in his
eyes. (Dickens) (surprise)
2. Imperative interjections show the will of the speaker or his order or appeal to the hearer. They are: here, hush, sh-sh, well, come, now, etc.
Here! I’ve had enough of this. I’m going. (Shaw) (protest)
“Upon my word I was not awake, sir,” replied Oliver earnestly. “I was not, indeed, sir.” “Tush,tush,my dear!” said the Jew abruptly resuming his old manner. (Dickens) (order)
§ 3. Interjections may be primary and secondary.
1. Primary interjections are not derived from other parts of speech. Most of them are simple words: ah, oh, eh, pooh, hum, fie, bravo, hush. Only a few primary interjections are composite: heigh-ho! hey-ho! holla-ho! gee-ho!
2. Secondary interjections are derived from other parts of speech. They are homonymous with the words they are derived from. They are: well, now, here, there, come, why, etc.
(Derivative interjections should not be confused with exclamation-words, such as nonsense, shame, good, etc.)
Derivative interjections may be simple: well, here, there, come, etc., and composite: dear me, confound it, hang it, etc.
Interjections are used as independent sentence-words or independent elements of the sentence.1
1 See Chapter XV, § 42.
T h e D a u g h t e r: Sixpence thrown away! Really mamma, you might have
spared Freddy that.
T h e G e n t l e m a n: Phew! (Shaw)
Well, I don’t like those mysterious little pleasure trips that he is so fond of
taking. (Voynich)
N о t e. — Formulas of courtesy, greetings, etc. should not be regarded as
interjections. Thus, good-bye, thank you are not interjections because they do
not express emotion or will.
Chapter ХП
THE PREPOSITION
§ 1.The preposition is a part of speech which denotes the relations between objects and phenomena. It shows the relations between a noun or a pronoun and other words.
Usually the preposition is not stressed and stands before the word it refers to.
Desert moved quickly to the windows. (Galsworthy)
Sometimes, however, a preposition may be separated from the word it refers to and placed at the end of the sentence or clause. In that case it is stressed.
But he sounds as though he knows what he’s talking about. (Wilson)
The preposition may be weakly stressed before a pronoun.
She wrote the words to them herself, and other poems. (Galsworthy)
The preposition is stressed when its meaning is emphasized.
The book was in the table, not on it.
§ 2. As to their morphological structure prepositions fall under the following groups:
(1) simple (in, on, at, for, with, etc.);
(2) derivative(behind, below, across, along, etc.);
(3) compound(inside, outside, within, without, etc.);
(4) composite(because of, in front of, in accordance with, etc.).
§ 3. According to their meaning prepositions may be divided into prepositions of place and direction (in, on, below, under, between, etc.), time(after, before, at, etc.), prepositions expressing abstract relations (отвлеченные отношения) (by, with, because of, with a view to, etc.).
The lexical meaning of some prepositions is quite concrete (e. g. in, below, between, before, after, till, etc.), while that of some other prepositions may be weakened to a great extent (e. g. to, by, of).
For instance, the preposition to generally indicates direction or movement towards something:
Every night Sissy went to Rachel’s lodging, and sat with her in her small neat
room. (Dickens)
But in some cases the lexical meaning of the preposition to is weakened.
...all the house belongs to me, or will do in a few years. (Ch. Bronte)
Some prepositions are polysemantic and may express different relations; e. g. for:
Never once had Erik sensed the struggle for life. (Wilson) (purpose.)
Even when their eyes had met and her sister had approached the bed, Louisa
lay for minutes looking at her in silence... (Dickens) (time)
She could scarcely move her head for pain and heaviness, her eyes were
strained and sore, and she was very weak. (Dickens) (cause)
§ 4. Some prepositions are homonymous with adverbs and conjunctions.
For instance, the prepositions after and before are homonymous with the adverbs after and before and with the conjunctions after and before.
There is an old saying that if a man has not fallen in love before forty, he had
better not fall in love after. (Shaw) (ADVERB)
When he got back to Ann Arbor, he found Savina in a state of excitement
because Trasker had heard from Regan after Erik had left. (Wilson)
(CONJUNCTION)
“Where do you intend to stay tonight?” she asked after a moment. (Wilson)
(PREPOSITION)
The colour rushed into Bosinney’s face, but soon receded, leaving it sallow-
brown as before. (Galsworthy) (ADVERB)
He did not write to her, and it was almost a year before he began to see her
again. (Wilson) (CONJUNCTION)
This letter seemed to afford her peculiar satisfaction; she read it through twice
before replying to the landlady. (Mansfield) (PREPOSITION)
Though identical inform, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions are different parts of speech. The adverb, unlike the preposition and conjunction, serves as part of the sentence, e. g. after is an adverbial modifier of time, etc.
§ 5. Some prepositions (on, in, by, over, off, up) are homonymous with postpositions.1
1 See Chapter VII, § 2.
A preposition as well as a postposition does not perform any independent function in the sentence. But while a preposition denotes the relation between objects and phenomena, a postposition is part of a composite verb.
A preposition is not usually stressed, while a postposition usually bears the stress.
We’ve got to live on what we earn. (Cronin) (PREPOSITION)
He liked Erik more than any of the assistants the department had taken on in a
long time, as much as he could like, one of the younger men. (Wilson)
(POSTPOSITION)
Chapter XIII
THE CONJUNCTION
§ 1.The conjunctionis a part of speech which denotes connections between objects and phenomena. It connects parts of the sentence, clauses, and sentences.
Sadie brought them in andwent back to the door. (Mansfield)
...the blinds were down in the dining-room andthe lights turned on — and all
the lights were red-roses. (Mansfield)
The other day I was saying to Fabermacher that Haviland isn’t really cruel,
he’s just thoughtless. AndFabermacher said that was the cruellest thing about
the human race. Andhe’s right. (Wilson)
§ 2. According to their morphological structureconjunctions are divided into the following groups:
(1) simple conjunctions (and, or, but, till, after, that, so, where, when, etc.).
Some of the simple conjunctions are homonymous with prepositions, adverbs, and pronouns.
(2) derivative conjunctions (until, unless, etc.).
(3) compound conjunctions (however, whereas, wherever, etc.). These conjunctions are few.
(4) composite conjunctions (as well as, as long as, in case, for fear (that), on the ground that, for the reason that, etc.).
Some conjunctions are used in pairs (correlatively): both... and, either... or, not only... but (also), neither... nor, whether... or.
If anyone had asked him if he wanted to own her soul, the question would
have seemed to him bothridiculous andsentimental. (Galsworthy)
...nor would John Reed have found it out himself; he was not quick either of
vision or conception. (Ch. Bronte)
Her son had not onlycome home, buthe had come home a good person.
(Abrahams)
Well, they were honest eyes, he concluded, and in them was neither
smallness normeanness. (London)
He was aware of vague memories of rain and wind and snow, but whetherhe
had been beaten by the storm for two days or two weeks he did not know.
(London)
§ 3.As to their functionconjunctions fall under two classes:
(1) coordinating conjunctions;
(2) subordinating conjunctions.
Coordinating conjunctions join coordinate clauses in a compound sentence (a), or homogeneous parts in a simple sentence (b), or homogeneous subordinate clauses in a complex sentence (c), or independent sentences (d).
(a) He had said he would stay quiet in the hall, buthe simply couldn’t any
more; andcrossing the gravel of the drive he lay down on the grass beyond.
(Galsworthy)
(b) He opened his eyes andstared quietly at the pure sky. (Wilson)
(c) Hers was that common insularity of mind that makes human creatures
believe that their color, creed, and politics are best and right andthat other
human creatures scattered over the world are less fortunately placed than they.
(London)
(d) Fabermacher wasted no time on a comedy of errors, and Havi-land
apologized for his mistake. Buthe was not as impressed as Erik had wanted
him to be. (Wilson)
Subordinating conjunctions generally join asubordinate or dependent clause to a principal clause (a), or adverbial modifiers to the predicate in a simple sentence (b), or sometimes they join homogeneous parts (c).
(a) Whenhe was eight, he got work in another mill. (London)
(b) He shook his head a bit as ifin wonder that he had permitted himself to be
caught in such crosscurrents. (Wilson)
(c) My look or something else must have struck her as offensive, for she
spoke with extreme, thoughsuppressed irritation. (Ch. Bronte)
Coordinating conjunctions.
The meaning of conjunctions is closely connected with the relations they express. Thus the classes of coordinating conjunctions according to their meaning correspond to different types of compound sentences.
There are four different kinds of coordinating conjunctions.
1.Copulativeconjunctions: and, nor, as well as, both ... and, not only ... but (also)f neither... nor. Copulative conjunctions chiefly denote that one statement or fact is simply added to another (nor and neither express that relation in the negative sense).
There was a scent of honey from the lime trees in flower, andin the sky the
blue was beautiful, with a few white clouds. (Galsworthy)
His whole face was colourless rock; his eye was bothspark andflint. (Ch.
Bronte)
I do not know what they knew of the things happening beyond the hill, nordo
I know if the silent houses I passed on my way were sleeping securely...
(Wells)
...but it made him indeed suspect that she could give as well asreceive; and
she gave him nothing. (Galsworthy)
...the newspapers discussed the play for a whole fortnight not onlyin the
ordinary theatrical notices and criticisms, butin leading articles and letters.
(Shaw)
He went on as a statue would: that is, he neither spoke normoved. (Ch.
Bronte)
2. Disjunctive conjunctions: or, either... or, or else, else.
Disjunctive conjunctions offer some choice between one statement and another.
The majority of the inhabitants had escaped, I suppose, by way of the Old
Worning road... or they had hidden. (Wells)
...eitherhis furlough was up, or he dreaded to meet any witnesses of his
Waterloo flight. (Thackeray)
He was compelled to think this thought, or elsethere would not be any use to
strive, and he would have lain down and died. (London)
“You go and fetch her down, Tom,” said Mr. Tulliver, rather sharply, his
perspicacity or his fatherly fondness for Maggie making him suspect that the
lad had been hard upon “the little un”, elseshe would never have left his
side... (Eliot)
3. Adversative conjunctions: but, while, whereas. Adversative conjunctions show that one statement or fact is contrasted with or set against another.
Fabermacher nodded in agreement, buthis eyes glittered with silent triumph
and contempt for the victory. (Wilson)
His nerves had become blunted, numb, whilehis mind was filled with weird
visions and delicious dreams. (London)
4. Causative-consecutiveconjunctions: so, for. Causative-consecutive conjunctions denote consequence, result, or reason. By these conjunctions one statement or fact is inferred or proved from another.
He had gone some miles away, and was not expected home until late at night;
so the landlady dispatched the same messenger in all haste for Mr. Pecksniff.
(Dickens)
His eyes mast have had in them something of George Forsyte’s sardonic look;
forher gloved hand crisped the folds of her frock, her eyebrows rose, her face
went stony. (Galsworthy)
The conjunction for is a border-line case between a coordinating and a subordinating conjunction. When expressing cause it approaches in its meaning the subordinating conjunctions as, because:
There was moreover time to spare, forFleur was to meet him at the Gallery at
four o’clock, and it was yet half past two. (Galsworthy)
Coordinating conjunctions can be used both in compound and in simple sentences; the coordinating copulative conjunctions both... and, as well as are used only in simple sentences.
Then he shrugged in impatience and said frankly, “I don’t know what came
over me.” “You know as wellas I do and that’s why we’re going away,”
Savina insisted steadily. (Wilson)
The use of the copulative conjunction and in simple sentences as well as in compound sentences is widely spread.
But as he did so, unexpectedly he paused, andraised his head. (Cronln)
The coordinating conjunctions neither... nor, or, either... or are more widely used in simple sentences than in complex sentences.
There was nothing remarkable about the size of the eyes. They were neither
large norsmall... (London)
...in order to make a man or a boy covet a thing, it is only necessary to make
the thing difficult to attain. (Twain)
...there was a slight smile on his lips that could have been eitheramusement
or shy self-deprecation. (Wilson)
Some of the coordinating conjunctions are polysemantic. Thus the coordinating conjunction and may indicate different relations:
...there stood a white house within a walled garden, and in the pantry of this
we found a store of food. (Wells) (COPULATIVE)
You are nineteen, Jon, andI am seventy-two. How are we to understand each
other in a matter like this, eh? (Galsworthy) (ADVERSATIVE)
When he read those books something happened to him, andhe went out of
doors again in passionate quest of a river. (Galsworthy) (CONSECUTIVE)
The conjunction or may have a disjunctive and an adversative meaning.
Happily it (a hackney-coach) brought them to the place where Jonas dwelt or
the young ladies might have rather missed the point and cream of the jest.
(Dickens) (ADVERSATIVE)
After that one would see, or more probably one would not. (Galsworthy)
(DISJUNCTIVE)
The causative-consecutive conjunction for may have a causative or a consecutive meaning:
He would have to be more careful than man had ever been, forthe least thing
would give it away and make her as wretched as himself almost. (Galsworthy)
(CAUSATIVE)
From the warmth of her embrace he probably divined that he had let the cat
out of the bag, forhe rode off at once on irony. (Galsworthy)
(CONSECUTIVE)
Subordinating conjunctions.
Subordinating conjunctions may introduce subject clauses, object clauses, predicative clauses, adverbial clauses, and attributive clauses.1
1 See Chapter XVII, The Complex Sentence.
Many of the subordinating conjunctions introduce different kinds of clauses. For instance that may introduce subject clauses, predicative clauses, object clauses, adverbial clauses of purpose and of result.
ThatRuth had little faith in his power as a writer did not alter her nor diminsh
her in Martin’s eyes. (London) (SUBJECT CLAUSE)
What I mean is thatyou’re the first man I ever met who’s willing to admit out
loud to a woman that he thinks she’s better than he is. (Wilson)
(PREDICATIVE CLAUSE)
He looked to the south and knew thatsomewhere beyond those blue hills lay
the Great Bear Lake. (London) (OBJECT CLAUSE)
He walked into the Green Park thathe might cross to Victoria Station and
take the Underground into the City. (Galsworthy) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
OF PURPOSE)
He bailed wildly at first, splashing himself and flinging the water so short a
distance thatit ran back into the pool. (London) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF
RESULT)
The conjunction if introduces object clauses and adverbial clauses of condition:
He was anxious to see ifshe had relapsed since the previous evening.
(Dickens) (OBJECT CLAUSE)
Ifthe man ran, he would run after him; but the man did not run. (London)
(ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CONDITION)
The conjunction as introduces adverbial clauses of time, of cause, and of comparison:
These were the thoughts of the man as he strove onward. (London)
(ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME)
As Jacob has made me captain, I must call the roll. (Dodge) (ADVERBIAL
CLAUSE OF CAUSE)
That day had decreased the distance between him and the ship by three miles;
the next day by two — for he was crawling now as Bill had crawled.
(London) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF COMPARISON)
The conjunction while may express both coordination and subordination. It may be a coordinating adversative conjunction (in this case it is translated as тогда как; a) or a subordinating conjunction of time (in this case it is translated as в то время как, пока).
Older men probably resented him while others of his own generation could
feel so inadequate when comparing their talent to his... (Wilson)
(COORDINATING CONJUNCTION)
While skating along at full speed, they heard the cars from Amsterdam
coming close behind them. (Dodge) (SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION)
Subordinating conjunctions may also be used in simple sentences. They join adverbial modifiers to the predicate of the sentence. Conjunctions of comparison, such as as if, as though are frequently used in simple sentences.
He scowled at first; then, as if recollecting something, he said... (Ch. Bronte)
He seemed faint and dizzy and put out his free hand while he reeled, as
though seeking support against the air. (London)
The subordinating conjunctions though and if are also used in simple sentences:
Though alone, he was not lost. (London)
Next, he sheered to the left, to escape the foot of the bed; but this sheer, if too
generous, brought him against the corner of the table. (London)
Subordinating conjunctions of time are rarely used in simple sentences. In that case they are mostly used with participles:
That she was one of those women — not too common in the Anglo-Saxon
race — born to be loved and to love, who whennot loving are not living, had
certainly never even occurred to him. (Galsworthy)
Only rarely does a subordinating conjunction pin homogeneous members:
He was gay thoughtired.
CHAPTER XIV
THE PARTICLE
§ 1.The particle is a part of speech giving modal or emotional emphasis to other words or groups of words or clauses. A particle may join one part of the sentence to another (connecting particles). Particles have no independent function in the sentence.
§ 2. According to their meaning particles fall under the following main groups:
1. Limitingparticles: only, just, but, alone, solely, merely, barely, etc.
I only wanted to make you speak. (Shaw)
Just one question, Mrs. Dartie. Are you still fond of your husband?
(Galsworthy)
Soames was but following in the footsteps of his father. (Galsworthy)
Her name alone was almost enough for one who was terribly susceptible to
the charm of words. (Galsworthy)
He had taken up with it solely because he was starving. (London)
She (Ruth) thought she was merely interested in him (Martin) as an unusual
type possessing various potential excellences, and she even felt philanthropic
about it. (London)
They were spreading not merely on the surface, but within. (Galsworthy)
He barely acknowledged the young fellow’s salute. (Galsworthy)
2. Intensifying particles: simply, still, just, yet, all, but, only, quite, even, etc.
He made plans to renew this time in places still more delightful. (Galsworthy)
He justdid dislike him. (Galsworthy)
They did not even know that he was married. (Galsworthy)
If Jo were onlywith him! (Galsworthy)
But out there he’ll simplyget bored to death. (Galsworthy)
3. Connectingparticles: too, also.
Higgins comes in. He takes off the hat and overcoat.
Pickering comes in. He alsotakes off his hat and overcoat. (Shaw)
He (James) was silent. Soames, too,was silent. (Galsworthy)
4. Negativeparticles: not, never.
No, he was notafraid of that. (Galsworthy)
She looked round her. Nothing — not a thing, no tiniest disturbance
of her hall, nor of the dining room. (Galsworthy)
I neverspoke to him except to ask him to buy a flower off me. (Shaw)
Some of the particles are polysemantic, for instance just, only.
That’s justhis way of talking. (Dreiser) (LIMITING PARTICLE)
Why, I think, that’s a terrible price to ask for it, justawful. (Dreiser)
(INTENSIFYING PARTICLE)
French people onlycome to England to make money. (Galsworthy)
(LIMITING PARTICLE)
If onlythere were a joyful future to look forward to! (Galsworthy)
(INTENSIFYING PARTICLE)
Almost all the particles are homonymous with other parts of speech, chiefly with adverbs (simply), but also with conjunctions (but), pronouns (all), and adjectives (only). The particles else, solely, merely have no homonyms.
Part II
SYNTAX
Chapter XV
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
§ 1. A sentence is a unit of speech whose grammatical structure conforms to the laws of the language and which serves as the chief means of conveying a thought. A sentence is not only a means of communicating something about reality but also a means of showing the speaker’s attitude to it.
§ 2. The classification of simple sentences is based on two principles:
(A) according to the purpose of the utterance;
(B) according to the structure.
According to the purpose of the utterance we distinguish four kinds of sentences.
1. The declarative sentence.
A declarative sentence states a fact in the affirmative or negative form. In a declarative sentence the subject precedes the predicate. It is generally pronounced with a falling intonation.
Charles Dickens was born at Landport, Portsmouth. (Laing)
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They don’t want anything from us — not even our respect. (Douglas)
There is a great difference between English and Russian negative sentences. Whereas in English the predicate of a sentence can have only one negation, in Russian it can have more than one.
He does notgo anywhere.
He nevergoes anywhere. Он никуда не ходит.
2. The interrogativesentence.
An interrogative sentence asks a question. It is formed by means of inversion, i. e. by placing the predicate (or part of it) before the subject (unless the subject of the interrogative sentence is an interrogative word, in which case there is no inversion; see Chapter XVI, § 3).
There are four kinds of questions:
(a) Generalquestions requiring the answer yes or no and spoken with a rising intonation. They are formed by placing part of the predicate, i. e. the auxiliary or modal verb before the subject of the sentence.
Do youlike art?
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Can youspeak English?
If the predicate is expressed by the verbs to be or to have (the latter expressing possession) used in a simple tense form, the question is formed by placing the predicate before the subject.
Is heat home?
Have youmany English books?
Sometimes such questions have a negative form and express astonishment or doubt.
Haven’t you seen him yet?
In Russian the particles разве, неужели are used in such questions. General questions are sometimes rhetoric questions, they do not require any answer, but are veiled statements expressing some kind of emotion.
Can you commit a whole country to their own prisons? Will you erect a gibbet
in every field and hang men like scarecrows? (Byron)
(b) Specialquestions beginning with an interrogative word and spoken with a falling intonation. The order of words is the same as in general questions, but the interrogative word precedes the auxiliary verb.
Wheredo you live?
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When the interrogative word is the subject of the interrogative sentence or an attribute to the subject, the order of words is that of a statement, i. e. no inversion is used.
Wholives in this room?
Whose pen is on the table?
(c) Alternativequestions, indicating choice and spoken with a rising intonation in the first part and a falling intonation in the second part.
Do you live in town or in the country?
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(d) Disjunctivequestions requiring the answer yes or no and consisting, of an affirmative statement followed by a negative question, or a negative statement followed by an affirmative question. The first part is spoken with a falling intonation and the second part with a rising intonation.
You speak English, don’t you?
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You are not tired, are you?
3. The imperativesentence.1
1 See the formation of the Imperative Mood (Chapter VII, Mood).
An imperative sentence serves to induce aperson to do something, so it expresses a command, a request, an invitation, etc.
Commands are characterized by a falling tone.
Come to the blackboard!
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Stop talking!
Requests and invitations arecharacterized by a rising intonation.
Open the door, please!
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Do come to see me to-morrow!
4. The exclamatory sentence.
An exclamatory sentence expresses some kind of emotion or feeling. It often begins with the words what and how, it is always in the declarative form, i. e. no inversion takes place. It is generally spoken with a falling intonation.
What a lovely day it is!
рисунок
What fine weather!
How wonderful!
Beautiful!
§ 3. According to their structure simple sentences are divided into two-member and one-member sentences.
A two-member sentence has two members — a subject and a predicate. If one of them is missing it can be easily understood from the context.
Fleur had establishedimmediate contact with an architect. (Galsworthy)
A two member sentence may be complete or incomplete. It is complete when it has a subject and a predicate.
Young Jolyon could not help smiling. (Galsworthy)
It is incomplete when one of the principal parts or both of them are missing, but can be easily understood from the context. Such sentences are called elliptical and are mostly used in colloquial speech and especially in dialogue.
Best not to see her again. Best to forget all about her. (Abrahams)
What were you doing? Drinking. (Shaw)
Who does it for Mr. George? James, of course. (Galsworthy)
Where were you yesterday? At the cinema.
A one-member sentence is a sentence having only one member which is neither the subject nor the predicate. This does not mean, however, that the other member is missing, for the one member makes the sense complete.
One-member sentences are generally used in descriptions and in emotional speech.
If the main part of a one-member sentence is expressed by a noun, the sentence is called nominal. The noun may be modified by attributes,
Dusk — of a summer night. (Dreiser)
Freedom! Bells ringing out, flowers, kisses, wine. (Heym)
The dull pain and the life slowly dripping out of him. (Heym)
The main part of a one-member sentence is often expressed by an infinitive.
No! To have his friendship, his admiration, but not at that price. (Galsworthy)
To die out there — lonely, wanting them, wanting home! (Galsworthy)
§ 4. Simple sentences, both two-member and one-member, can be unextended and extended. A sentence consisting only of the primary or principal parts is called an unextended sentence.
She is a student.
Birds fly.
Winter!
An extended sentence is a sentence consisting of the subject, the predicate and one or more secondary parts (objects, attributes, or adverbial modifiers).
The two native women stole furtive glances at Sarie. (Abrahams)
The two white overseers... had gone into the hills with the natives to look for
stray sheep. (Abrahams)
PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
In a sentence we distinguish the principal parts, secondary parts and independent elements. The principal parts of a sentence are the subject and the predicate. The secondary parts are the attribute, the object and the adverbial modifier.