Наиболее употребительные префиксы

УДК 811.111 Англ.

© Цуканова Л.Д. Английский язык. Рабочая программа,

методические указания, контрольные задания и тексты для чтения для студентов заочной формы обучения 2 курса института экономики, бизнеса и права - М., МГУТУ, 2009

Данная работа предназначена для студентов 2 курса экономических специальностей заочной формы обучения.

Составители: Цуканова Лидия Дмитриевна, к.п.н., доцент

Рецензент: Вильчинский Сергей Степанович, к.ф.н., доцент

Редактор: Свешникова Н.И.

© Московский государственный университет технологий и управления, 2009

109004, Москва, Земляной вал, 73

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ ЯЗЫК

РАБОЧАЯ ПРОГРАММА, МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ И КОНТРОЛЬНЫЕ ЗАДАНИЯ

СОДЕРЖАНИЕ ПРОГРАММЫ

ЦЕЛЕВАЯ УСТАНОВКА

Основной целью обучения студентов английскому язы­ку в неязыковом вузе является достижение ими практичес­кого владения этим языком, что предполагает при заочном обучении формирование умения самостоятельно читать литературу по специальности вуза с целью извлечения ин­формации из иноязычных источников.

В условиях заочного обучения такие виды речевой дея­тельности, как устная речь (говорение и аудирование) и письмо, используются на протяжении всего курса как сред­ство обучения.

Перевод (устный и письменный) на протяжении всего курса обучения используется: а) как средство обучения; б) для контроля понимания прочитанного; в) в качестве воз­можного способа передачи полученной при чтении инфор­мации.

В процессе достижения цели обучения решаются вос­питательные и общеобразовательные задачи, способствую­щие повышению общеобразовательного и культурного уровня студентов.

Рекомендуется также использовать материалы периодической печати, способствующие выполнению целей и задач обучения.

Данная программа предусматривает, главным образом, самостоятельную работу студентов. Работа под руководст­вом преподавателя рассчитана на 40 учебных часов, кото­рые используются для групповых занятий различного характера (установочные, контрольно-закрепительные и дру­гие), организуемых на УКП и в филиалах заочных вузов.

В заочных вузах, как правило, изучается тот же иност­ранный язык, который изучался в среднем учебном заве­дении.

Поскольку лица, поступающие в заочный вуз, имеют иногда значительный перерыв в занятиях и уровень их подготовки по английскому языку различен, прог­рамма по английскому языку включает грамматический и лексический материал, необходимый для овладения уме­ниями и навыками чтения литературы по специальности вуза.

ТРЕБОВАНИЯ НА ЭКЗАМЕНЕ

Экзамен. К экзамену по английскому языку допускают­ся студенты, имеющие зачет за I курс, выполнившие пись­менные контрольные работы и сдавшие учебный матери­ал по чтению за II курс.

На экзамене по английскому языку проверяются уме­ния:

а) читать со словарем текст по специальности вуза.

Форма проверки понимания - письменный или уст­ный перевод.

Норма перевода — 1000 печатных знаков в час письмен­но или 1200-1500 печатных знаков в час устно.

б) читать без словаря текст, содержащий изученный грамматический материал и 5-8 незнакомых слов на 600-800 печатных знаков.

Форма проверки понимания - передача содержания прочитанного на русском языке.

Время подготовки — 8-10 минут.

ЯЗЫКОВОЙ МАТЕРИАЛ

Фонетический минимум.Звуковой строй английского языка; особенности произношения английских гласных и согласных; отсутствие смягченных согласных и сохранение звонких согласных в конце слова; чтение гласных в от­крытом и закрытом слогах; расхождение между произно­шением и написанием; ударение; особенности интонации английского предложения.

Лексический минимум. За полный курс обучения сту­дент должен приобрести словарный запас в 1000 лексичес­ких единиц (слов и словосочетаний).

Данный объем лексических единиц является основой для расширения потенциального словарного запаса сту­дентов, и поэтому программа предусматривает усвоение наиболее употребительных словообразовательных средств английского языка: наиболее употребительные префиксы, основные суффиксы имен существительных, прилагатель­ных, наречий, глаголов, приемы словосложения, явления конверсии (переход одной части речи в другую без измене­ния формы слова).

Потенциальный словарный запас может быть значи­тельно расширен за счет интернациональной лексики, сов­падающей или близкой по значению с такими же словами русского языка, но отличающейся от них по звучанию и ударению, например: academy n, basis n, contact n, dynamo n, machine n, metal n, Soviet n, а также за счет конверсии.

В словарный запас включаются также фразеологичес­кие сочетания типа to take part принимать участие, to take place происходить, наиболее употребительные сино­нимы, антонимы и омонимы английского языка и условные сокращения слов, принятые в английских научных и технических текстах.

Грамматический минимум. В процессе обучения сту­дент должен усвоить основные грамматические формы и структуры английского языка.

Морфология

Имя существительное. Артикли (определенный и не­определенный) как признаки имени существительного; предлоги — выразители его падежных форм. Окончание -s — показатель множественного числа имени существительного. Окончания 's, s' как средство выражения притя­жательного падежа.

Образование множественного числа имен существи­тельных путем изменения корневой гласной от следую­щих имен существительных: a man — men, a woman-women, a child - children, a tooth - teeth, a foot-feet.

Множественное число некоторых имен существитель­ных, заимствованных из греческого и латинского языков, например: datum —data, phenomenon - phenomena, nu­cleus — nuclei.

Существительное в функции определения и его пере­вод на русский язык.

Имя прилагательное и наречие. Степени сравнения. Перевод предложений, содержащих конструкции типа the more ... the less ... .

Имена числительные. Количественные, порядковые. Чтение дат.

Местоимения. Личные местоимения в формах имени­тельного и объектного падежей; притяжательные местои­мения; возвратные и усилительные местоимения; местои­мения вопросительные, указательные, относительные. Неопределенное местоимение one (ones) и его функции. Неопределенные местоимения some, any, отрицательное ме­стоимение nо и их производные.

Глагол. Изъявительное наклонение глагола и образова­ние видовременных групп Indefinite, Continuous, Perfect. Активная и пассивная формы (Active and Passive Voice). Особенности перевода пассивных конструкций на русский язык. Модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты. Функции гла­голов to be, to have, to do. Основные сведения о сослага­тельном наклонении.

Образование повелительного наклонения и его отрица­тельной формы. Выражение приказания и просьбы с по­мощью глагола to let.

Неличные формы глагола: инфинитив, его формы (In­definite Active, Indefinite Passive, Perfect Active), инфинитив­ные конструкции — объектный инфинитивный оборот и субъектный инфинитивный оборот. Причастие — Participle I и Participle II в функциях определения и обстоятельства. Сложные формы причастия — Participle I (Passive, Perfect Active). Независимый причастный оборот. Герундий — Gerund (простые формы) и герундиальные обороты.

Строевые слова. Местоимения, наречия, предлоги, артикли, союзы. Многофункциональность строевых слов; it, that (those), one, because, because of, as, since, till, until, due to, provided, both, either, neither.

Синтаксис

Простое распространенное предложение. Члены пред­ложения. Прямой порядок слов повествовательного пред­ложения в утвердительной и отрицательной формах. Об­ратный порядок слов в вопросительном предложении. Оборот there is (are), его перевод. Безличные предложе­ния.

Сложносочиненное и сложноподчиненное предложе­ния. Главное и придаточные предложения. Союзное и бес­союзное подчинение определительных и дополнитель­ных придаточных предложений. Обороты, равнозначные придаточным предложениям.

Объем текстового материала

1. Тексты учебника и специализированных учебных

пособий или хрестоматий………………………………………….. 16 с.

2.Тексты контрольных заданий……………………………………..... 6 с.

3.Тексты для чтения по специальности…………………………….. .. 10 с.

ИТОГО………………………………………………………………….. 32 с.

(48 000 печ. знаков)

ПРИМЕЧАНИЕ: За страницу принимается 1 500 печатных знаков.

ТЕХНИЧЕСКИЕ СРЕДСТВА

На протяжении всего курса обучения английскому язы­ку широко используются различные технические средства обучения, при этом особое внимание уделяется различ­ным видам звукозаписей, воссоздающим для студентов-за­очников иноязычную среду. Рекомендуется также широко использовать учебное телевидение, компьютерные обучающие программы.

УЧЕБНИКИ И УЧЕБНЫЕ ПОСОБИЯ

Андрианова Л.Н., Багрова Н.Ю., Ершова Э.В.Учебник английского языка для вечерних и заочных технических вузов. М., 2000.

Бедрицкая Л.В.,Английский для экономистов, Минск, 2004

Глушенкова Е.В., Комарова Е.Н.Английский язык для студентов экономических специальностей. М., 2003

Рубцова М.Г.Полный курс английского языка. М., 2002

Еникеева М.Е., Зеленщиков А.В., Зимина Н.Ф., Поздеева Т.А., Сулханянц Н.З.Учебник для самостоятельной работы по английскому языку. Санкт-Петербург, 2000

Шалаева Г.П. Английский язык. Краткий грамматический справочник.М.,2003

Полушина Л.Н.Английский язык для дистанционного обучения. М., 2004

Цуканова Л.Д.Английский язык. Сборник упражнений по грамматике. М.,2003

Учебные пособия по обучению чтению.

Учебные пособия по обучению лексике.

Книги для чтения по специальностям.

Отраслевые англо-русские словари.

МЕТОДИЧЕСКИЕ УКАЗАНИЯ

Особенностью овладения иностранным языком при за­очном обучении является то, что объем самостоятельной работы студента по выработке речевых навыков и умений значительно превышает объем практических аудиторных занятий с преподавателем. Соотношение аудиторных и самостоятельных часов, отводимых на полный курс обуче­ни, равно 40 ч.: 240 ч. Таким образом, каждому аудиторно­му двухчасовому занятию должно предшествовать не ме­нее шести часов самостоятельной работы студента.

Для того чтобы добиться успеха, необходимо присту­пить к работе над языком с первых дней обучения в вузе и заниматься систематически.

Самостоятельная работа студента по изучению ино­странного языка охватывает: заучивание слов английского языка, уяснение действия правил словообразования, грам­матических правил, чтение текстов на английском языке вслух в соответствии с правилами чтения, понимание текс­тов, слушание текстов, записанных на магнитофонной лен­те, с тем, чтобы научиться правильно произносить и пони­мать на слух содержание сообщения; построение вопросов и ответов к текстам; перевод на русский язык (устный и письменный).

Для того чтобы достигнуть указанного в целевой уста­новке уровня владения языком, следует систематически тренировать память заучиванием иноязычных слов, текс­тов. Надо помнить, что способности развиваются в процес­се работы, что осмысленный материал запоминается лег­че, чем неосмысленный, что навык вырабатывается путем многократно выполняемого действия.

I. РАБОТА НАД ЛЕКСИКОЙ

Чтобы понимать читаемую литературу, необходимо ов­ладеть определенным запасом слов и выражений. Для это­го рекомендуется регулярно читать на английском языке учебные тексты, газеты и оригинальную литературу по специальности.

Работу над закреплением и обогащением лексического запаса рекомендуем проводить следующим образом:

а) Работая со словарем, выучите английский алфавит, а также ознакомьтесь по предисловию с построением слова­ря и с системой условных обозначений, принятых в данном словаре.

б) Слова выписывайте в тетрадь или на карточки в исходной форме с соответствующей грамматической характеристикой, т.е. существительные — в ед. числе, глаголы — в неопределенной форме (в инфинитиве), указывая для неправильных глаголов основные формы.

При переводе с английского языка на русский необхо­димо помнить, что трудности вызывает следующее:

1. Многозначность слов. Например, слово convention имеет значения:

1) собрание, съезд; 2) договор, соглашение, конвенция; 3) обычай;

4) условность. Подобрать нужное значение слова можно только исходя из контекста.

The convention was successful. Собрание прошло успешно.

2. Омонимы (разные по значению, но одинаково звуча­щие слова). Их следует отличать от многозначных слов.

some — какой-нибудь и sum — сумма

break — ломать и brake — тормоз

left - левый и left - Past Indefinite от глагола to leave - остав­лять, покидать

Only few people write the left hand. Немногие пишут левой рукой.
They left Moscow for Kiev. Они уехали из Москвы в Киев.

3. Конверсия. Образование новых слов из существую­щих без изменения написания слов называется конверси­ей. Наиболее распространенным является образование глаголов от соответствующих существительных. Например:

water вода to water поливать

control контроль to control контролировать

cause причина to cause причинять, являться причиной

4. Интернационализмы. В английском языке большое место занимают слова, заимствованные из других языков, в основном латинского и греческого происхождения. Эти слова получили широкое распространение и стали интернациональными.

По корню таких слов легко догадаться об их переводе на русский язык, например: mechanizationмеханизация; atomатом и т.д.

Однако нужно помнить, что многие интернационализ­мы расходятся в своем значении в русском и английском языках, поэтому их часто называют «ложными друзьями» переводчика. Например: accurateточный, а не аккурат­ный ; resin смола, а не резина; controlне только контролиро­вать, но и управлять и т.д.

5. Словообразование. Эффективным средством расширения запаса слов в английском языке служит знание способов словообразования. Умея расчленить производное слово на корень, суффикс и префикс, легче определить значение неизвестного слова. Кроме того, зная значения
наиболее употребительных префиксов и суффиксов, вы сможете без труда понять значение гнезда слов, образован­ных из одного корневого слова, которое вам известно.

ВАРИАНТ № 1

I. Выберите правильный ответ, обращая внимание на видовременную форму и залог сказуемого, и переведите предложения на русский язык.

1.1. Bank-notes first … into use in Britain during the 17^th century.

a) have come

b) came

c) come

1.2. Raw materials and agricultural products … usually … in open markets,

where the influence of cost on supply is much less pronounced.

a) will … be sold

b) is … sold

c) are … sold

1.3. When the company joined the New York stock market, it … already … on

the London market for 5 years.

a) has … been

b) had … been

c) is … being

1.4. The bankers were informed that the interest on the loan … by Mr. Black a

few days ago.

a) was paid

b) is paid

c) will be paid

1.5. Benefits that the government … now among all should be given to the needy.

a) was distributing

b) will be distributing

c) is distributing

II. Выберите правильный ответ, обращая внимание на модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

2.1. Next year our company … launch a sales campaign in Japan.

a) was able to

b) has to

c) will be able to

2.2. The company … waste any more time on this project.

a) shouldn’t

b) couldn’t to

c) haven’t to

2.3. You … pay all the invoices not later than 30 days from the date of issue.

a) may

b) are to

c) has to

2.4. As the firm didn’t trust the partner it … sign a contract with them.

a) weren’t allowed to

b) cannot

c) wasn’t able to

2.5. We can solve this problem at our next meeting. It isn’t urgent; we …

discuss it today.

a) needn’t

b) mustn’t

c) shouldn’t

III. Выпишите предложения, в которых причастие II является определением, и переведите их на русский язык.

3.1. The price is determined by the interaction of demand and supply.

3.2. Exports are goods and services sold to other countries.

3.3.Increased by inflation, prices of goods resulted in decrease of demand quantities.

3.4. In many countries economic development has led to periods of rapid population

growth.

3.5. The examining of the quality of consumer goods offered at a particular market is

of special interest to consumer groups.

IV. Прочитайте и устно переведите текст, затем выполните тест по тексту:

ТЕСТ ПО ТЕКСТУ

ВАРИАНТ № 2

I. Выберите правильный ответ, обращая внимание на видовременную форму и залог сказуемого, и переведите предложения на русский язык.

1.1. Auditing … very fast now.

a) was developing

b) is developing

c) has developed

1.2. The International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) … in 1977.

a) established

b) was established

c) is established

1.3. The bankers were informed that Mr. Roger … the interest on the loan a few

days ago.

a) has paid

b) had paid

c) pays

1.4. The investment interest … to the stockholder’s account in the bank next

week.

a) will be sent

b) was sent

c) is sent

1.5. The accountant … a balance by 5 p.m.

a) will be drawing up

b) will draw up

c) will have drawn up

II. Выберите правильный ответ, обращая внимание на модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

2.1. In a command economy, government … plan production and consumption.

a) was able to

b) are to

c) have to

2.2. If free migration between countries is allowed, people from poor

countries … go elsewhere looking for higher incomes.

a) can

b) must

c) will be able to

2.3. Only when demand equals supply, people … buy or sell as much as they

want.

a) can

b) must

c) had to

2.4. You … prepare this account today, you can do it tomorrow. It is not urgent.

a) mustn’t

b) needn’t

c) can’t

2.5. In order to earn income, we … work.

a) have to

b) may

c) are to

III. Выпишите предложения , в которых причастие II является определением, и переведите их на русский язык.

3.1. Grain markets have greatly changed for the last 25 years in the USA and

Europe.

3.2. Consumer groups often study the quality of goods offered by foreign producers

at a particular market.

3.3. In English-speaking countries, public auditors are usually certified.

3.4. Consumers typically buy a smaller quantity of the good sold at a higher price..

3.5. As seen from the article the study of economics is of great use even to those

students who have no wish to become professional economists.

IV. Прочитайте и устно переведите текст, затем выполните тест по тексту:

Accounting Information

Accounting provides informational access to a company's financial condi­tion for three broad interest groups. First, it gives the company's management the information to evaluate financial performance over a previous period of time, and to make decisions regarding the future. Second, it informs those who are interested in buying its stock, about the fi­nancial position of the company. Third, accounting provides reports for the tax and regulatory departments of the government. In general, accounting informa­tion can be classified into two main categories: financial accounting (or public information) and managerial accounting (or private information).

Managerial accounting deals with cost and profit relationships, efficiency and productivity, planning and control, pricing decisions, capital budgeting, etc. This information pro­vides a wide variety of specialized reports for division managers, department heads and project directors.

A standard set of financial statements is expected to be prepared regularly by financial accounting and published in an annual report at the end of the fiscal year. These statements include the following items: 1) the balance sheet, 2) the statement of cash flows, 3) the income statement, 4) the statement of retained earnings.

Information relating to the financial position of a company, mainly about assets and liabilities, is presented in a balance sheet. The statement of cash flows shows the changes in the company's financial position and provides information which is not available in either an income statement or a balance sheet.

Another financial statement disclosing the results of the company's activ­ity is known as the income and expense statement. Prepared for a defined time interval, this statement summarizes the company's revenues, expenses, gains and losses and shows whether a company has made a profit within the period. Income is considered to be the difference between revenues and expenses. Revenues are transactions that represent the inflow of assets as a result of operations — that is, the assets received from selling goods and rendering services. Expenses are transactions involving the outflow of assets in order to generate revenue, such as wages, salaries, rent, interest and taxes. The income statement excludes the amount of assets withdrawn by the owners, in a corporation such withdrawal of assets being called dividends.

The separate statement of retained earnings and stockholder's equity shows inves­tors what has happened to their ownership in the company, how earnings and new stock issuance have increased its value, and what dividends were paid.

Each of these reports contains figures for previous years and for the cur­rent period, providing a way of comparing present and past company perfor­mance. Being prepared for the use of management, the financial statements contain neither debit nor credit columns. These statements are accompanied by additional data about the particular accounting method used, as well as explanations about the most important events within the previous year.

ТЕСТ ПО ТЕКСТУ

ВАРИАНТ № 3

I. Выберите правильный ответ, обращая внимание на видовременную форму и залог сказуемого, и переведите предложения на русский язык.

1.1. Sales … not … at the moment.

a) have … increased

b) are … increasing

c) are … increased

1.2. Russia’s work on setting up the Federal Treasury … in 1993.

a) was beginning

b) was begun

c) begins

1.3. We … already … a pilot project for training employees for the Treasury

agencies.

a) are … starting

b) were … started

c) have … started

1.4. Economics … society’s production and consumption levels.

a) analyzes

b) are analyzing

c) analyzed

1.5. Our proposals … by the Board of Directors next week.

a) are discussed

b) will be discussing

c) will be discussed

II. Выберите правильный ответ, обращая внимание на модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

2.1. When I was area manager, I … visit five customers a day.

a) could

b) were able to

c) am to

2.2. Proposals are usually accepted with an absolute majority, so we … reject a

proposal without presenting it to the Meeting.

a) needn’t

b) mustn’t

c) wasn’t allowed to

2.3. We have no idea what … happen to their next delivery.

a) ought to

b) had to

c) can

2.4. Firms … increase efficiency of labour for obtaining higher profits.

a) was able to

b) have to

c) is allowed to

2.5. Government regulations … be in the interests of society.

a) has to

b) are allowed to

c) should

III. Выпишите предложения, в которых причастие II является определением, и переведите их на русский язык.

3.1. The demanded quality of a particular good varies with different individuals and

consumer groups.

3.2. The company has made a decision to start producing new machines.

3.3. Supply restrictions imposed by cartels are as characteristic of industrialized

economies as of developing economies.

3.4. In our modern complex economy, the producer often decides for himself what

goods and services should be offered to consumers.

3.5. The living standards of population as seen from the table is rather low.

IV. Прочитайте и устно переведите текст, затем выполните тест по тексту:

STRATEGIC PLANNING

New products strategy has four purposes. First is to focus team effort. People involved in new products projects suffer many diversions — other projects, emergencies, customer problems, and so on. With today’s pressure on product innovators to speed up the process, focus is critical.

Second, strategy brings about integration. Scores or hundreds of people are involved in any project, each with their own agenda and departmental pressures. New project managers are expected to make the group work as a team, consistently, and with synergy, not divisiveness. But managers can’t be in all places at all times. Strategy statements can be, and they help. If new product strategy is not offered, individuals make up their own.

Third, strategy is a tool of delegation. All players can not be checked by the new products manager every time they make a decision or spend some money. So, strategy lets them operate independently, effectively, and efficiently while still integrated with the rest of the team.

Fourth, preparing strategy requires proactive management, not reactive. If it is necessary to state what a project’s focus will be, chances are, the investigation of the opportunities will be more thorough. And, if the strategic statement must include all critical guidelines, then its author had to study the selected opportunity thoroughly. In other words, having to write out strategy helps create better managers.

Though these purposes sound rather academic, the unique nature of the new products process makes them real. Let’s look in on a team of people developing a small, portable computer printer. One member is thinking of using a new battery-based technology, while another team member is concentrating on potential customers who work in environments where wall plugs are available! One department plans to pretest the product extensively, while another department assumes time is critical and is building finished production capability from the beginning! And the team is being guided by requests from the sales department, which is currently calling on smaller firms although, in fact, the biggest potential may be in large firms (or governments, or schools)! This team has not developed strategy.

ТЕСТ ПО ТЕКСТУ

ВАРИАНТ № 4

I. Выберите правильный ответ, обращая внимание на видовременную форму и залог сказуемого, и переведите предложения на русский язык.

1.1. A team of accountants … now at bringing the company’s accounts to a

balance.

a) works

b) is working

c) will be working

1.2. Specialists say that one day all the data of invoices, shipping documents and

other documents … in computer form.

a) will be provided

b) will provide

c) are provided

1.3. Yesterday we … your account with 200 US dollars.

a) were credited

b) have credited

c) credited

1.4. Bonds … for a fixed period, usually from 15 years up.

a) issued

b) are issued

c) are issuing

1.5. Turnover … by 5 per cent this year.

a) had increased

b) is increasing

c) has increased

II. Выберите правильный ответ, обращая внимание на модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

2.1. Usually importers … first obtain an import licence.

a) may

b) was to

c) must

2.2. After financial crises the government … take special decisions to achieve a

balanced economy.

a) will have to

b) may

c) was allowed to

2.3. If prices change, the consumer … change the quantities demanded if he

wants to maintain his budget at the same level.

a) was able to

b) will have to

c) has to

2.4. Everyone … find himself in one of the situations: employed, or

unemployed, or out of the labour force.

a) has to

b) can

c) are able to

2.5. Our enterprise is too big we … locate it in the city centre.

a) will not be able to

b) couldn’t

c) were not allowed to

III. Выпишите предложения, в которых причастие I является определением, и переведите их на русский язык.

3.1. An increasing concern has been expressed about the continued growth in world

population.

3.2. The unemployment is growing too rapidly for labour markets to be in

equilibrium.

3.3. Varying input, the firm can vary output.

3.4. People working in their own businesses should calculate the cost of their own

time spent in running the business.

3.5. The dollar is constantly fluctuating.

IV. Прочитайте и устно переведите текст, затем выполните тест по тексту:

MANAGEMENT

Management is the art of getting things done through other people. It includes the personnel who have the right to make decisions that influence company's affairs.

The main thing is to get a result. In summary, a manager is anyone, at any level of the organization, who directs the efforts of other people wherever a group of people work together to achieve results, a manager is usually present. A manager is the catalyst who makes things happen.

There are three management levels: top management, middle management and operating management. Top management includes the president, vice presidents, and the general manager. Middle management includes department managers and plant managers. Middle managers are managers above the supervisory level but subordinate to the firm's most senior executives. Operating management includes supervisors, foremen, etc. Operating managers are persons who directly oversee the efforts of those who actually perform the work.

The most important responsibility of any manager is decision making. Most of the decisions are made by middle management. Top executives provide cross-communication throughout the company. They work out the overall strategy and make main decisions. Successful management is a skill of choosing from alternatives.

Decision makings are divided into: recognizing the problem, defining and analyzing the problem, evaluating alternative solutions, choosing the most favourable solution and implementing the approach chosen.

Management functions are planning, organizing, directing, controlling, staffing and innovating. It should be noted that successful management is based on three basic elements: leadership, motivation and communication.

To operate a successful business one should have management skills
because effective management is the key to business success. In a result-oriented management the main aim is not to issue instructions but to get results. That is why a manager’s pay should be linked to the performance of the enterprise where he works. If the result is poor for a few months running a manager must leave his office. New people should come instead. It will be a natural selection of a managerial staff when people with better knowledge, more expertise and truly original thinking will come to management.

ТЕСТ ПО ТЕКСТУ

ВАРИАНТ № 5

I. Выберите правильный ответ, обращая внимание на видовременную форму и залог сказуемого, и переведите предложения на русский язык.

1.1. It is known that the majority of regions … constantly the Federal center for

financial assistance.

a) begs

b) have begged

c) are begging

1.2. The prices … by supply and demand.

a) were determined

b) determine

c) are determined

1.3. The situation in low-income countries … since 1965.

a) has improved

b) is improving

c) was improved

1.4. The precious metals … first as money on the basis of weight.

a) were using

b) were used

c) had used

1.5. The government … all resources allocation decisions in the Soviet Union.

a) was made

b) made

c) had made

II. Выберите правильный ответ, обращая внимание на модальные глаголы и их эквиваленты. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

2.1. The rate of unemployment is too high. The government … ignore it.

a) may not

b) cannot

c) needn’t

2.2. Even at zero output level a firm … pay some costs.

a) has to

b) may

c) are to

2.3. You … attend this seminar. You are very busy with the company’s annual

account. It is more important.

a) needn’t

b) mustn’t

c) aren’t to

2.4. The Meeting of Shareholders … begin in an hour. Don’t forget statistic

data on company’s profits and losses.

a) was able to

b) is to

c) have to

2.5. As the firm didn’t trust the partner it … sign a contract with them.

a) weren’t allowed to

b) cannot

c) wasn’t able to

III. Выпишите предложения , в которых причастие I является обстоятельством, и переведите их на русский язык.

3.1. The persons forming a company are required to submit several documents to the

Registar of Companies.

3.2. Making a decision, the economist should rely on all the information that he can

find.

3.3. At present we are recruiting a new sales director.

3.4. In developing countries, labour efficiency is too low in agriculture to hope for an

increase in food supply in the near future.

3.5. Money is essential in economy, serving as a means of exchange.

IV. Прочитайте и устно переведите текст, затем выполните тест по тексту:

The UK government measures against economic decline

We live in a world of change so at that any moment of time there will always be some industries in decline, but others will be growing. A declining industry, therefore would present no serious economic problems if labour and capital were extremely mobile; resources could move from declining to expanding industries.

Economic growth demands large expenditures on research and development, but this involves great risks, especially in the development stage. The development of the industrial process may cost ten or twenty times as much as the original research.

The government also operates its own research and development institutions, and several government agencies exist to offer advice and help firms introducing new tech­nology (i.e. for innovation). In recent years the government has provided financial assistance towards the costs of devel­opments in micro-electronics, office automation, computer-aided design, robots and aerospace. Financial support for innovation is available for all firms, both large and small.

It is believed that the UK's economic growth and abili­ty to compete in world markets depends very much on the existence of a skilled and adaptable labour force.

Even when unemployment was very high during the 1980s, several sec­tors of

industry were reporting serious shortages of particu­lar types of skilled labour. This was one of several indications that the UK's training effort was lagging behind those of some other industrialized countries. The government has responded to this problem by greatly extending the facilities for training.

The government takes an interest in industrial perfor­mance in many other ways. It has played a leading role in the development of management education and took the initia­tive in setting up the British Institute of Management. It provides a wide range of services to assist exporters most notably with the Export Credits Guarantee Department which, by providing a kind of insurance against the possibil­ity of default by overseas buyers, reduces the risks attached to trading overseas.

Many authorities hold the view that the relatively slow growth of productivity in British industry was at least partly due to constant changes in government economic policy which, by creating uncertainty, made firms very cautious about embarking on expensive modernization pro­grammes. In the 1960s the government attempted to deal with this problem by setting up some machinery to assist with long-term planning. It established the National Economic Development Council with members drawn from the trade unions, the employers, and the government. Its task is to propose measures which would remove obsta­cles to economic growth and improve Britain's economic performance. Its proposals aim to provide some basis for the government's economic policies, and the setting out of its findings, it is hoped, will encourage industry to frame appropriate development plans.

ТЕСТ ПО ТЕКСТУ

Т Е К С Т Ы Д Л Я Ч Т Е Н И Я

THE PARTNERSHIP

Partnerships are voluntary combinations of from 2 to 20 persons formed for the purpose of carrying on business with a view of profit. This type of organisation represents a logi­cal development from the one-person business since the obvious method by which such a firm may acquire further capital is to form a partnership. The motive, however, may not be financial and partnerships are often formed in order to bring new ability and enterprise into the business.

The partners usually share in the task of running the business, but a partner need not play an active role. A per­son who joins a partnership, supplying capital and sharing in the profits, but taking no part in the management is known as a dormant or sleeping partner. Partnerships are a com­mon form of business organisation in such professions as law, accountancy, surveying, and medicine.

The advantages of this type of firm are similar to those of the one-person business. It is a flexible organisation which allows a greater degree of specialization than the one-person business. Partners usually specialize in one or more aspects of the business; one may be responsible for buying, one for selling, one for production, and so on. Since it has greater access to capital, it can achieve greater size than the sole proprietor.

The great disadvantage, like that of the one-person business, is the fact that the liability of the partners is unlim­ited and they are all fully liable for the acts of the other part­ners. There are, however, some limited partnerships which have to be registered with the Registrar of Companies. In such firms some partners (e.g. dormant partners) may have their liability limited to some specified sum, but at least one of the partners must have unlimited liability.

The survival of a partnership depends upon the contin­ued harmonious relationship between a number of people in situations which often give much cause for disagreement. Thus, where trading risks are very great, the partnership is not a very stable type of organisation.

TAXATION

Everyone knows that taxation is necessary in a modern state: Without it, it would not be possible to pay the soldiers and policemen who protect us, nor the workers in govern­ment offices who look after our health, our food, our water, and all the other things that we cannot do for ourselves, nor also the ministers and members of parliament who gov­ern the country for us. By means of taxation we pay for things that we need just as much as we need somewhere to live and something to eat.

But though everyone knows that taxation is necessary, different people have different ideas about how taxation should be arranged. Should each person have to pay a cer­tain amount of money to the government each year? Or should there be a tax on things that people buy and sell? If the first kind of taxation is used, should everyone pay the same tax, whether he is rich or poor? If the second kind of taxation is preferred, should everything be taxed equally?

In most countries, a direct tax on persons, which is called income tax, exists. It is arranged in such a way, that the poorest people pay nothing, and the percentage of tax grows greater as the taxpayer's income grows.

But countries with direct taxation nearly always have indirect taxation, too. Many things imported into the coun­try have to pay taxes or "duties". Of course, it is the men and women who buy these imported things in the shops who really have to pay the duties, in the form of higher prices. In some countries, too, there is a tax on things sold in the shops. If the most necessary things are taxed, a lot of money is collected, but the poor people suffer most. If un­necessary things like jewels and fur coats are taxed, less money is obtained, but the tax is fairer, as the rich pay it.

Probably this last kind of indirect tax, together with a direct tax on incomes which is low for the poor and high for the rich, is the best arrangement.

DEMAND AND SUPPLY

Demand is the quantity of a good that buyers wish to buy at each price¹. Other things equal², at low prices the demanded quantity is higher.

Supply is the quantity of a good that sellers wish to sell at each price. Oth­er things equal, when prices are high, the supplied quantity is high as well.

The market is in equilibrium when the price regulates the quantity supplied by producers and the quantity demanded by consumers. When prices are not so high as the equilibrium price, there is excess demand (shortage) raising the price. At prices above the equilibrium price, there is excess supply (surplus) reducing the price.

There are some factors influencing demand for a good, such as the prices of other goods, consumer incomes and some others.

An increase in the price of a substitute good (or a decrease in the price of a complement good) will at the same time raise the demanded quantity.

As consumer income is increased, demand for a normal good will also increase but demand for an inferior good will decrease. A normal good is a good for which demand increases when incomes rise. An inferior good is a good for which demand falls when incomes rise.

As to supply, some factors are assumed³ as constant. Among them are tech­nology, the input price, as well as degree of government regulation. An im­provement in technology is as important for increasing the supplied quantity of a good as a reduction in input prices.

Government regulates demand and supply, imposing ceiling prices (max­imum prices) and floor prices (minimum prices) and adding its own demand to the demand of the private sector.

INFLATION

Inflation is a steady rise in the average price and wage level. The rise in wages being high enough to raise costs of production, prices grow further re­sulting in a higher rate of inflation and, finally, in an inflationary spiral. Peri­ods when inflation rates are very large are referred to as' hyperinflation.

The causes of inflation are rather complicated, and there is a number of theories explaining them. Monetarists, such as Milton Friedman, say that inflation is caused by too rapid increase in money supply and the correspond­ing excess demand for goods.

Therefore, monetarists consider due government control of money supply to be able to restrict inflation rates. They also believe the high rate of unem­ployment to be likely to restrain claims for higher wages. People having jobs accept the wages they are being paid, the inflationary spiral being kept under control. This situation also accounts for rather slow increase in aggregate demand.

On the other hand, Keynesians, that is, economists following the theory of John M. Keynes, suppose inflation to be due to processes occurring in money circulation. They say that low inflation and unemployment rates can be ensured by adopting a tight incomes policy.

Incomes policies, though, monetarists argue, may temporarily speed up the transition to a lower inflation rate but they are unlikely to succeed in the long run².

The costs of inflation depend on whether it was anticipated and on the extent to which the economy's institutions allow complete inflation adjustment.

The longer inflation continues, the more the economy learns to live with it. Indexation is a means to reduce the costs of some inflation effects. In­dexed wages or loans mean that the amount to be paid or repaid will rise with the price level. Indexation has already been introduced in countries that had to live with inflation rates of 30 or 40 percent for years. And the more coun­tries adjust their economies to cope with inflation, the closer they come to hyperinflation. Indexation means that high rates of inflation are much more likely to continue and even to increase.

WHAT IS MARKETING?

Itis impossible to speak about marketingwithout understanding what "needs and wants" mean. So let's begin with the definition of needs and wants. A needoccurs when a person feels physiologically deprived of basic necessities like food, clothing, and shelter. A wantis a felt need that is shaped by a person's knowledge, culture, and personality. So if you feel hungry, you have developed a basic need and desire to eat something. Let's say you then want to eat an apple or a candy bar because, based on your past experience and personality, you know these will satisfy your hunger need. Effective marketing, in the form of creating an awareness of good product at convenient locations, can clearly shape a person's wants.

The American Marketing Association, representing marketing professionals in the United States and Canada, states that "marketing is the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and organizational objectives."Many people incorrectly believe that marketing is the same thing as advertising or personal selling. This definition shows marketing to be a far broader activity. Further, this definition stresses the importance of beneficial exchanges that satisfy the objectives of both those who buy and those who sell ideas, goods, and services—whether they be individuals or organizations.

To serve both buyers and sellers, marketing seeks (1) to discover the needsand wantsofprospective customers and (2) to satisfy them. Theseprospectivecustomers include both individuals buying for themselves and their households and organizations that buy for their own use (such as manufacturers) or for resale (such as wholesalers and retailers.Thekey to achieving these two objectives is the idea of exchange, which is the trade of things of value between buyer and sellerso thateach is better off after the trade.

Formarketing to occur, at least four factors are required: (1) two or moreparties (individuals or organizations) with unsatisfied needs, (2) desire and ability ontheir part to be satisfied, (3) a way for the parties to communicate,and (4) something to exchange.

THE PARIS CLUB

Debt reschedulingis a form of debt reorganization in which debtors and creditorsnegotiate to defer payments of a principal and interest falling due in aspecified interval for repayment on a new schedule. Some countries find it almostimpossible to service their external debts. Recently, reschedulingexternal debts has become a widely accepted practice. Debtrescheduling occurs at the Paris club for government and private debt owed to official creditors and at the London Club for debt owed to commercialcreditors.

The Paris Club is an informal forum where countries experiencing difficultiesin paying their debts to governments and private institutions meet with their creditors to restructure these debts. The name might be quite misleading because in reality the Paris Club is not a club, nor is it a formal international organization. It has no offices, no secretariat, and above all, no charter. The Paris Club is an ad hoc institution with no legal status.

In part, the Paris Club's confidentiality policy has prevented it from becoming known to a wider public. Creditors refrain from releasing any information pertaining to their assessment of a given debtor's economic and financial situation or to the scope of debt relief granted. The onset of the international debt crisis in the early 1980s, however, brough