Disadvantages of a Partnership

Unlimited liability of at least one partner. Insurance considerations such as those mentioned in the proprietorship section apply here also.

Unstable life. Elimination of any partner constitutes automatic dissolution of partnership. However, operation of the business can continue based on the right of survivorship and possible creation of a new partnership. Partnership insurance might be considered.

Relative difficulty in obtaining large sums of capital. This is particularly true of long term financing when compared to a corportion. However, by using individual partners' assets, opportunities are probably greater than in a proprietorship.

Firm bound by the acts of just one partner as agent.

Difficulty of disposing of partnership interest. The buying out of a partner may be difficult unless specifically arranged for in the written agreement.

THE CORPORATION

The corporation is by far the most complex of the three business structures.

As defined by the Chief Justice Marshall's famous decision in 1819, a corporation " is an artificial being, invisible, intangible, and existing only in contemplation of the law." In other words, a corporation is a legal entity, distinct from the individuals who own it.

Formation of the Corporation

A corporation usually is formed by the authority of a state government. Corporations which do business in more than one state must comply with the Federal laws regarding interstate commerce and with the state laws, which may vary considerably.

The procedure ordinarily required to form a corporation is that, first, subscriptions for capital stock must be taken and a tentative organization created. Then, approval must be obtained from the Secretary of State in the state in which the corporation is to be formed. This Approval is in the form of a charter for the corporation, stating the powers and limitations of the particular enterprise.

Advantages of the Corporation

Limitations of the stockholder's liability to a fixed amount of investment. However, do not confuse corporate liability with appropriate liability insurance considerations.

Ownership is readily transferable.

Separate legal existence.

Stability and relative permanence of existence. For example, in the case of illness, death, or other cause for loss of a "principal" (officer or owner), the corporation continues to exist and do business.

Relative ease of securing capital in large amounts and from many investors. Capital may be acquired through the issuance of variuos stocks and long term bonds. There is relative ease in securing long term financing from lending institutions by taking advantage of corporate assets and often personal assets of stockholders and principals of guarantors. (Personal guarantees are very often required by lenders.)

Delegated authority. Centralized control is secured when owners delegate authority to hired managers, although they are often one and the same.

The ability of the corporation to draw on the expertise and skills of more than one individual.

Disadvantages of the Corporation

Activities limited by the charter and by various laws. However, some states do allow very broad charters.

Manipulation. Minority stockholders are sometimes exploited.

Extensive government regulations and required local, state, and federal reports.

Less incentive if manager does not share in profits.

Expense of forming a corporation.

Double tax - income tax on corporate net income (profit) and on individual salary and dividends.

Unit 7A

The civil cases

A‘tort’is a civil wrong which injures someone or harms a person’s property or reputation. Sometimes it is negligence. Negligence can occur in many situations. For example, when a hospital gives a patient a transfusion of the wrong type of blood, or a solicitor gives his client wrong advice because he has overlooked a new law, or a company fails to make sure its employees’ working conditions are safe. Anybody who is injured or who suffers financial loss through someone else’s negligence has a right to sue in the civil courts for compensation.

Negligence is only one of a range of torts, or wrongs, for which it is possible to sue and claim damages. Other torts include assault, libel, slander and nuisance. But by far the most common tort, in terms of the number of court actions started, is negligence.

Apart from tort, the other big category of civil action is for breach of contract. When two parties enter into a contract, they both agree to carry out certain obligations. The contract need not be in writing. An oral agreement to buy something from a shop or to do some work is just as much a contract as a document running to a dozen pages of legalese.

Unit 7B

INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS