The Breach of Duty in Negligence
The reasonable man standard defines the duty. A defendant's conduct is compared with the reasonable man standard to determine whether a violation of the duty has occurred.
Causation and Injury in Negligence
As with other torts, the violation of the duty must be the proximate cause of an injury, such as personal injury and property damage.
But sometimes a plaintiff could not recover for loss caused by another's negligence if the plaintiff's own negligence contributed along with the negligence of the defendant in causing the injury. Every person was supposed to use proper care to avoid injury. Failure to do so was contributory negligence.
Many injustices have arisen because of the harshness of the contributory negligence rule. The rule sometimes results in the plaintiffs recovering nothing even when the plaintiff's own negligence was minimal. Most states have substituted comparative negligencefor contributory negligence. Comparative negligence applies when a plaintiff in a negligence action is partially at fault. Instead of being able to recover nothing, the plaintiff is awarded damages that are reduced in proportion to the extent of the plaintiff's own negligence.
Vocabulary notes:
| negligence – неосторожность, халатность | to contribute – содействовать, способствовать |
| carelessness – невнимательность, беспечность, небрежность | to substitute – заменять; замещать |
| reasonable man standard – стандарт здравомыслящего человека (обязанность действовать осторожно и предусмотрительно) | contributory negligence – способствующая неосторожность (система, когда возмещение убытков запрещено, если ущерб частично является результатом неосторожности истца) |
| breach of duty – невыполнение обязанностей | comparative negligence – сопоставительная осторожность (система, когда ущерб присуждается в пропорции с неосторожностью истца) |
| common– частый, общий | to award damages – 1) возмещать убытки; 2) присудить убытки |
| prudence – осмотрительность, осторожность | to recover – получить по суду возмещение убытков |
| good judgment - рассудительность |
II. Answer the following questions:
1. What is negligence?
2. What does the negligence involve?
3. What does the reasonable man standard require?
4. When does comparative negligence apply?
III. Match the following terms with their definitions:
| 1. comparative negligence | a. causing injury by failing to act as a reasonable person |
| 2. contributory negligence | b. monetary compensation for loss or injury |
| 3. damages | c. system in which damages are awarded in proportion to the plaintiff’s negligence |
| 4. negligence | d. system in which recovery is barred if the injury is partly the result of carelessness by the plaintiff |
| 5. reasonable man standard | e. the duty to act with the care, prudence, and good judgment of a reasonable person |
IV. Find in the text above English equivalents for the following words and expressions:
1. особый вид гражданского правонарушения
2. считаться неспособным
3. одного возраста, умственных способностей и опыта
4. поведение ответчика
5. нарушение обязательств
6. несправедливость
7. частично по вине
V. Match the following English expressions with their Russian equivalents:
| 1. damages at large | a. чрезмерная компенсация |
| 2. damages ultra | b. компенсаторные (реальные) убытки |
| 3. actual damages | c. полная сумма действительно понесенных убытков |
| 4. assess damages | d. прямые убытки |
| 5. claim for damages | e. реальные убытки |
| 6. compensatory damages | f. дополнительное возмещение убытков |
| 7. direct damages | g. вдвое увеличенная сумма реальных убытков |
| 8. double damages | h. определять сумму денежного возмещения |
| 9. excessive damages | i. требование о возмещение убытков |
| 10. foreseeable damages | j. убытки, не поддающиеся точной оценке |
| 11. general damages | k. предвидимый ущерб |
| 12. irreparable damages | l. предвидимый ущерб |
TEXT 6B
I. Read and translate the text. Sum the information you’ve learned from it:
WHAT IS STRICT LIABILITY?
Sometimes a person can be guilty of tort on the basis of absolute or strict liability – liability that exists even though the defendant meant or intended no harm and was not negligent.
Strict-liability makes the defendant liable, not on the basis of provable fault, but rather on the basis that the defendant engaged in a particular activity, which resulted in injury. In strict liability, proof of both the activity and the injury substitutes for proof of a violation of a duty.
Engaging in dangerous activities gives rise to strict liability. If a person is engaged in activities like blasting or storing flammable liquids in large quantities and someone is injured as a result, he is strictly liable.
Another strict-liability activity is ownership of dangerous animals. Domesticated animals are not considered dangerous unless the owner knows that a particular animal is vicious. Dogs, cats, cows and horses are domesticated animals. Bears, tigers, snakes, elephants, and monkeys are wild or dangerous animals. If the dangerous animal causes injury, the owner is strictly liable.
A third strict-liability activity is the sale of goods which are unreasonably dangerous. If the goods are defective, and the defect makes them dangerous, and this causes an injury, any merchant who sold those goods is strictly liable, as is the manufacturer.
Under strict-liability, the manufacturer and any seller in the chain of distribution are liable to any buyer or user of the defective product who is injured by it.
Vocabulary notes:
proof – доказательство (виновности)
provable fault – доказуемая вина
blasting – подрывные работы
to give rise - вызывать
vicious - злой
to engage – заниматься чем-либо
strict-liability – строгая ответственность
II. Answer the following questions:
1. What is strict- liability?
2. On what basis does strict liability make the defendant liable?
3. In what cases is the person strictly liable? Enumerate these cases and tell about them.
III. Find in the text above English equivalents for the following words and expressions:
1. быть виновным
2. абсолютная ответственность
3. на основе
4. явится следствием телесного повреждения
5. заниматься опасным видом деятельности
6. хранение легковоспламеняющихся видов жидкости
7. домашние животные
8. дикие животные
9. опасное животное
10. продажа чрезмерно опасных товаров
11. продавец, торговец
12. производитель
IV. Match the following English expressions with their Russian equivalents:
| 1.liability for damages | a.неограниченная ответственность |
| 2. liability insurance | b. текущие обязательства |
| 3. absolute (strict) liability | c. зафиксированное долговое обязательство |
| 4. civil liability | d. ответственность за убытки, ущерб |
| 5. company liability | e. гарантия компенсации ущерба |
| 6. criminal liability | f. абсолютная ответственность без учета вины подсудимого |
| 7.current liabilities | g.гражданская ответственность |
| 8. exemption from liability | h. ответственность компании |
| 9. fixed liability | i.освобождение от ответственности |
| 10. joint liability | j.вторичное обязательство |
| 11. limited liability | k. долгосрочные обязательства |
| 12. long-term liabilities | l.ограниченная ответственность |
| 13. primary liability | m. совместное обязательство |
| 14. unlimited liability | n. первичное обязательство |
| 15. secondary liability | o. уголовная ответственность |
UNIT 7
BUSINESS LAW
TEXT 7A
I. Read and translate the text using the words and word combinations after it:
WHAT IS BUSINESS LAW?
Business law (also known as commercial law) covers rules that apply to businesssituations and transactions. Business law is largely concerned with civil law, especially with contracts. Some business law applies to torts (private wrongs against individuals, distinct from breaches of contracts). For example, a tort may occur when a manufacturer makes a defective product that injures a user. Criminal law sometimes governs business-related activities, too. For example, criminal law would punish a firm that conspires with competitors to fix prices or an employee who steals company tools.
WHAT IS A CONTRACT?
Have you ever wondered how it is possible that you can eat a variety of foods produced in different parts of the world? That your TV - a very complex machine — brings you news and entertainment at the flick of a finger? That the streets are paved and crowded with vehicles? That you and others are comfortably dressed? That there is fresh running water in the kitchen tap? The list could go on and on.
These and all other marvels of modern civilization are the output of work by millions of persons. The key or link among the people who produce and consume these many goods and services is: the contract.
A contract is an agreement, which is enforced by law. This agreement normally results from an exchange of promises.
For example, a husband and wife want their house painted. A painter examines the building and offers(promises) to do the job for $1,500 during the next month. The owners could accept the offerby promising to pay the price. For a contract to arise, the painter as offerer (one who makes the offer) must make a definite offer, and generally the offeree (one to whom the offer is made) must accept the offer exactly as presented. Of course, the parties may negotiate additional details. The homeowners could reject the offer by demanding a lower price or earlier completion. The painter, in turn, could accept or reject such a counteroffer. Without both offer and acceptance, there is no agreement. No particular language need be used. The intent of the parties is the important thing.
Vocabulary notes:
| business transactions – деловые операции | offer – оферта (предложение одного лица другому, сообщающее о желании заключить с ним договор |
| private wrongs – частные правонарушения | offerer – лицо, делающее предложение заключать с ним договов |
| contract – контракт, договор, юридический документ | offeree – лицо, которому делают предложение заключить с ним договор |
| promise - | counteroffer – контрпредложение (ответ на предложение, содержащий новые условия и прекращающий первоначальное предложение) |
| negotiate - | acceptance – согласие, принятие, акцепт |
II. Answer the following questions:
1. What is business law?
2. What is a contract?
3. What results from an exchange of promises?
4. Who is an offerer?
5. Who is an offeree?
III. Match the following terms with their definitions:
| 1. acceptance | a. party to whom an offer is made |
| 2. offerer | b. affirmative response necessary to transform an offer into a contract |
| 3. counteroffer | c. party who makes an offer |
| 4. offer | d. proposal to enter into a legal agreement |
| 5. offeree | e. response, with new terms, by offeree, which ends the original offer |
V. Find in the text above English equivalents for the following words and expressions:
1. в большей степени затрагивает
2. правонарушение может произойти
3. наказать фирму, которая в сговоре с конкурентами
4. разнообразие продуктов
5. чудеса современной цивилизации
6. осматривать здание
7. принять предложение
8. обговаривать дополнительные детали
9. отклонить предложение
10. более низкая цена
11. намерение сторон
12. выполнять работу
IV. Translate into Russian:
1. A contract is a legally enforceable agreement between two or parties. It results from valid offer and acceptance.
2. There can be no contract without a mutual agreement.
3. Generally all persons who can understand the nature of a contract and its consequences have the capacity to contract. Such persons are to be legally competent.
4. Minors, insane persons, seriously intoxicated persons, convicts, and aliens lack full capacity to contract.
5. An offer must be made with offerer’s apparent intention to be bound by it, definite, and communicated to the offeree.
TEXT 7B
I. Read and translate the text. Sum up the information you’ve learned from it: