Полномочие, право, права, компетенция

О.В. Валько

к.ф.н., доцент, зав. кафедрой иностранных языков

Кемеровской государственной медицинской академии

Л.В. Гукина

Лебедева Т.Б.

Л33 English for Law [Текст]: учебно-методическое пособие / Т.Б. Лебедева.

– Кемерово: КемИ (филиал) ГОУ ВПО «РГТЭУ», 2008. – 75 с.

Текст дан в авторской редакции

Настоящее пособие предназначается для студентов специальности 030501 «Юриспруденция». Цель пособия – формирование у студентов основных навыков чтения, понимания, обработки и воспроизведения информации, а также навыков самостоятельной работы с общепрофессиональной литературой на английском языке с целью получения необходимой информации по специальности. Данное пособие предназначено для внеаудиторной и аудиторной работы.

УДК 802.1

ББК 81.2 Англ

© Кемеровский институт (филиал)

ГОУ ВПО «РГТЭУ», 2008

© Лебедева Т.Б., 2008

ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ

Настоящее пособие предназначается для студентов 1-2 курса специальности 030501 «Юриспруденция».

Цель пособия – формирование у студентов основных навыков чтения, понимания, обработки и воспроизведения информации, а также навыков самостоятельной работы с общепрофессиональной литературой на английском языке с целью получения необходимой информации по специальности. Помимо этого, представленный материал позволяет дать студентам более широкое представление о правовой и судебной системе в целом, и способствует развитию навыков работы со словарями (англо-русским, англо-английским словарем синонимов и антонимов и англо-английским толковым словарем).

Пособие состоит из 7 уроков, каждый из которых представляет собой тематически завершенное целое. Каждый урок состоит из трех текстов. Цель первых двух текстов урока – ознакомительное чтение. Третий текст имеет коммуникативную направленность и способствует развитию речевой деятельности. Каждый текст сопровождается лексическим минимумом по теме урока. После текстов студентам предлагается выполнить ряд упражнений на закрепление специализированной лексики.

Предлагаемое пособие рассчитано на 34 учебных часа и может быть использовано как для внеаудиторного чтения, так и для аудиторной работы.

UNIT 1

HISTORY OF THE LAW

TEXT1A

I. Read and translate the text using the words and word combinations after it:

History of the Law

Since the time when people first began living together, rules have been adopted to protect individuals and groups and to govern their relationships. Even the most ancient peoples compiled Law codes. A law code is a more or less systematic and comprehensive written statement of laws. The oldest law code is tablets from the ancient archives of the city of Ebla (now Tell Marduk, Syria), which date to about 2400 BC.

The earliest written law was also the Law Code of Hammurabi, a king who reigned over Babylon (on the territory of modern Iraq) around 2000 B.C.

Hammurabi's Code had 282 paragraphs and was carved in cuneiformon apillar made of very hard stone. This pillar was set up in a temple to the Babylonian god Marduk so that everyone could read it.

After, the fall of Babylon in the 16th century B.C.. the pillar was lost for centuries. It was found again during archeological expedition among the ruins of the Persian city of Susa in 1901. Now the pillar is in Paris in the Louvre museum.

The scientists managed to read Hammurabi's Code. It dealt with many of the same subjects as our legal system today. It included real and personal property law (the rights of slave owners and slaves, inheritance and property contracts), family law (divorce and marriage), criminal law (crimes and punishment of crimes), and business law (settlement of debts and even regulations about taxes and the prices of goods).

The Code gave very harsh punishments for almost all crimes. Not only murderers but also thieves and those guilty of false accusation faced thedeath penalty. The punishment was based on the principle of revenge: an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth. The criminals had to receive the same injuries and damages they had inflicted upon their victims.

Nevertheless, the penalty according to Hammurabi's laws could not be harder than the crime. The code banned the tradition of kidnapping women as brides. The laws of Hammurabi's Code took into account the circumstances of the offender as well as the offence itself. For example, if a citizen of a lower rank lost in a civil case he had to pay fewer penalties than an aristocrat, though if he won he also was awarded less.

The laws set forth in Hammurabi's Code were written by the King — a divinely inspired authority. Only the King could change such laws. This absolutism of power in the monarch was typical of legal systems until the time of the Greeks around 300 B.C.

Vocabulary notes:

comprehensive- полный	death penalty –смертная казнь
statement –изложение, заявление, утверждение	revenge –месть
ancient -древний	slave owner –рабовладелец
to compile-составлять (книгу, сборник и т.д.)	debt –долг
to deal with– иметь дело с чем-л.; рассматривать что-л.	to inflict –наносить
archive -архив	victim –жертва
paragraph –параграф, пункт; статья закона	to ban –запрещать
to reign over –царствовать	injury –повреждение
to carve –высекать, вырезать	take into account –принимать во внимание
pillar –столб, колонна	circumstances–обстоятельства
cuneiform –клинопись	offender –преступник
temple –храм	offence –нарушение, преступление
archeological expedition –археологическая экспедиция	civil case –гражданское дело
real property –недвижимость	award –присужденное наказание, решение (судей)
inheritance –наследование	to award –присуждать
settlement –расчет, уплата	divinely inspired –божественный, священный
regulation –правило, регламент, предписание, постановление	authority –власть
harsh –суровый	to set forth –излагать, формулировать
punishment –наказание
murderer –убийца
false accusation –лживое обвинение
thief (мн.ч. thieves) –вор
penalty –наказание, взыскание, штраф

II. Answer the following questions:

1. Who was Hammurabi? Where and when did he reign?

2. Where and why was the pillar with carved Hammura­bi laws set?

3. Tell what kinds of law did Hammurabi's code deal with?

4. Explain the principle «an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth»?

5. How do you understand «fair punishments»?

6. Did Hammurabi's code treat people of different ranks differently? Why?

III. The word AUTHORITY has the following meanings in Russian:

Власть

Supreme authority – верховная власть

Авторитет, вес, влияние

to have authority with smb. – пользоваться авторитетом у кого-л.

Авторитетный источник

to quote one’s authorities – ссылаться на авторитетные источники

Match the following English expressions with their Russian equivalents:

1. competent authority	a. превышать свои полномочия
2.l;aw-enforcement authorities/ agencies	b.власть/ полномочия парламента
3. lawful authority	c.законная власть
4. on good authority	d. из надежного источника
5. the authority of Parliament	e. иметь/ осуществлять власть
6. to abuse one’s authority	f. неограниченные полномочия
7. to endue with authority	g. наделять полномочиями кого-л.
8. to gain in authority	h. облечь властью
9. to hand over one’s authority to smb.	i. передавать свои полномочия кому-л.
10. to have/ to exercise authority	j. подрывать чей-л. Авторитет
11. to undermine smb.’s authority	k. правоохранительные органы
12. to vest smb. With authority	l. авторитетный специалист
13. unrestricted authority	m. приобретать всё большую власть

IV. Insert the following words and word combinations into the text below:

injuries and damages; discovered; carved; ancient legal codes; consists of; harsh; pillar; ruins; an eye for an eye; drawn up; observed; covered; private blood feuds; death penalty; bride’s kidnapping; inflicted; thieves; false accusers; property’s issues

In 1901 the French archaeologists … a great stone … amid the … of the Persian city Susa. The text, … into the stone pillar, was one of the most… . It was … by Hammurabi, a king of Babylonia, in XVIII c. B.C. Hammurabi’s code … 282 … This Code … all spheres of life. It outlawed …, murder, … Punishments under the code were often … The cruel principle of revenge was … According to the code criminals had to receive precisely those … they had … upon their victims. Not only murderers but also … and … faced the … This Code also covered the … and the issues of inheritance.

TEXT 1B

I. Read and translate the text using the words and word combinations after it:

Юридический

legal person – юридическое лицо

Правовой

legal text – правовой текст

Судебный

legal action – судебный иск

Легальный

legal activities – правомерная, законная

TEXT 1С

I. Read and translate the text. Sum up the information you’ve learned from it:

THA MAGNA CARTA

In 1215, the English barons forced the English King John I to sign and adopt the Magna Carta, which provided for them certain guarantees and protection against unreasonable acts of the king. Later, the Magna Carta was revised, and other documents, such as the English Bill of Rights (1689), were adopted. When the thirteen American colonies broke away form Greta Britain after the Revolutionary War, the colonists adopted the principles of the Magna Carta and the common law. These principles became the foundation of the legal system of US federal government and of all the states. Today, the two great systems of law in the Western world are the Common law of the English-speaking world and the Roman civil law found on the continent of Europe. Both systems have the same objectives, but they differ in origins and methods. The Roman civil law originated in codes (systematic collections of written rules of law) imposed on the people by the emperors of ancient Rome. In contrast, the English common law originated in decisions of judges based on widely held customs of the people. Also, English common law uniquely provides for trial by a jury of one’s peers (equals). The English colonies in America recognized the English common law as governing until July 4, 1776. After that date, existing rules were retained, but further changes in the law were made in the courts of the newly formed American country. The Common Law, with its emphasis on judges making rules of law, continues to serve well till now.

Vocabulary notes:

the Magna Carta -Великая Хартия Вольностей	to provide for -предусматривать
to force –заставлять, вынуждать	Common law – общее право
to break away –отделиться	Roman civil law –римское гражданское право
Bill of rights– Билль о правах	peer –равный, ровня
unreasonable –неразумный, необдуманный	trial–судебное разбирательство; судебный процесс, суд
objective –цель	emphasis –акцент
in contrast-в противоположность	to adopt –принимать (закон, резолюцию)

II. Answer the following questions:

1. When was the Magna Carta adopted??

2. What did the Magna Carta provide?

3. What principles of law did first American states adopt after they broke away from Great Britain?

4. How do the two great systems of law, Common law and the Roman civil law, differ?

III. The word GOVERNMENT has the following meanings in Russian:

Государственная власть

executive government – исполнительная власть

judicial government – судебная власть

legislative government – законодательная власть

Управление, руководство

to carry out the government of a state – осуществлять

управление государством

UNIT 2

WHAT IS A COURT?

A court is a tribunal established to administer justice under the law. It may decide civil disputes or criminal cases. A court may award damages or administer punishmentfor crimes.

Courts vary in authority (or jurisdiction) from justice of the peace and small claims courts to the supreme courts of various states and the Supreme Court of the United States. State courts have power to decide cases involving state and local laws. Federal courts have power to decide cases involving federal law.

There are two different levels of courts: trial courts and appellate courts. A trial court is the first court to hear a dispute. Witnesses testify and presented information to prove the alleged facts. A trial court consists not only of a judge but also of lawyers, who are officers of the court, and others who are necessary for the court's operation. The words court and judge are often used to mean the same thing. While presiding over a legal action, the judge may be referred to as «The Court» or «Your Honor».

An appellate court sometimes reviews decisions of a trial court when a party claims an error of law was made at the trial level. In most cases, the decision may be appealed to the next higher court, including the state supreme court. The decision of the supreme court of a state may be reviewed by the Supreme Court of the United States.

Unlike trial courts, appellate courts do not hear witnesses or accept new evidence. They examine the transcript— the word-for-word written record of what was said at the trial. They also read appellate briefs (written arguments on the issues submitted by the opposing attorneys). Then the appellate courts listen to oral arguments of the attorneys and may question them about the case. Finally, the appellate courts decide whether, as a matter of law, the decision below should be affirmed(upheld), reversed(overturned), amended(changed), or remanded(sent back to the trial court for corrective action, including possibly a new trial).

Vocabulary notes:

court – суд	officer -чиновник, должностное лицо, служащий
to administer justice –вершить правосудие	legal action –судебный процесс
to award damages –возмещать убытки	transcript –расшифровка (стенограмма)
to administer punishment –применять наказание	brief –краткое письменное изложение дела с привлечением фактов и документов, с которым сторона выступает в суде
The Supreme Court –Верховный суд	to affirm –подтверждать
trial court –суд, судебное заседание	to reverse –аннулировать, отменять
appellate court –апелляционный суд	to amend –исправлять
to testify –давать показания, свидетельствовать, показывать (to – в пользу, against – против)	to remand –отсылать ( дело) обратно на доследование, возвращать в первоначальную инстанцию

II. Answer the following questions:

1. What is a court?

2. What powers have State courts?

3. What powers have Federal courts?

4. What are the two different levels of courts?

5. What does a trial court consist of?

6. What is the role of witnesses at the trial?

7. What is the role of lawyers at the trial?

8. What is an appellate court?

9. Do appellate courts hear witnesses or accept new evi­dence?

10. What is a transcript and appellate briefs?

11. What is a procedure in appellate courts?

12. What are possible decisions of appellate courts?

III. Match the synonyms to the following words:

1. court, n	a. justice, n
2. to establish, v	b. to comprise, v
3. criminal, n	c. testimony, n
4. authority, n	d. advocate, n
5. supreme, adj	e. lawful, adj
6. to involve, v	f. to settle, v
7. to testify, v	g. to interrogate, v
8. lawyer, n	h. trial, n
9. judge, n	i. lawbreaker, n
10. legal, adj	j. verbal, adj
11. claim, n	k. jurisdiction, n
12. evidence, n	1. petition, n
13. oral	m. highest, adj
14. question, v	n. to witness, v

IV. Insert the following words into the sentences below:

witnesses, appellate court, transcript, levels, power, decide, tribunal, attorneys, question

1. There are two different … of courts: trial courts and appellate courts.

2. A court is a … established to administer justice under the law.

3. State courts have … to decide cases involving state and local laws.

4. An …sometimes reviews decisions of a trial court when a party claims an error of law was made at the trial level.

5. The court may … civil disputes or criminal cases.

6. They examine the … - the word-for-word written record of what was said at the trial.

7. Then the appellate courts listen to oral arguments of the … and may … them about.

8. Unlike trial courts, appellate courts do not hear … or accept new evidence.

TEXT 2B

I. Read and translate the text using the words and word combinations after it:

Ответчик

civil defendant – ответчик

Обвиняемый

bailed defendant –обвиняемый или подсудимый, освобожденный (из-под стражи) под залог

Подсудимый

judgement for the defendant – судебное решение в пользу ответчика или подсудимого

Подзащитный

representation of defendant – представительство интересов подзащитного или подсудимого

Match the following English expressions with their Russian equivalents:

1. convicted defendant	a. подсудимый, содержащийся под стражей
2. defendant in custody	b. осужденный
3. defendant’s record	c. досье подсудимого
4. defendant’s story	d. свидетель, выставленный ответчиком/ подсудимым
5. defendant’s witness	e. версия, выдвинутая обвиняемым

TEXT 2C

I. Read and translate the text. Sum up the information you’ve learned from it:

WHAT IS THE PROCEDURE IN A CIVILACTION?

A person injured by the wrongful conduct of another may be able to obtain relief from the court and bring a civil action against the wrongdoer.

A civil action involves two parties. Each of these parties may consist of one or more persons. The party who brings a civil action in order to enforce a private right is the plaintiff. The party against whom the civil action is brought is the defendant.

In state courts, the plaintiff begins a civil action by filling of a complaint with the clerk of the court. This step is usually done by the attorney for the plaintiff. The complaint states the plaintiff’s claims, which allegedly justifythe relief demanded.

Next, the defendant must be properly served with a copy of the complaint and with a summons. The summons is a court order, obtained by the plaintiff, which directs the defendant to answer the complaint. The defendant normally files an answer (statement in reply). In the answer, the defendant may do any one of the following:

1. Declare that even if the acts alleged in the complaint are true, they do not constitute a wrong for which the defendant had any duty to pay or otherwise act. This is an issue of law which is decided by the judge in a hearing.

2. Deny the truth of the facts alleged in the complaint. This raises an issue of fact. The dispute can then proceed to trial.

3. Admit the facts alleged but introduce other facts that excuse the defendant from liability. The dispute can then proceed to trial.

If the defendant does not answer the complaint within the time allowed (generally not more than 20 days), the plaintiff may with case be default judgment.

Both parties may engage in discovery procedures. These pretrial procedures are done under court order to obtain facts about the case and to identify the issues in dispute that require decision at the trial. A very frequently used discovery procedure is the deposition. In a deposition, parties and witnesses are questioned under oath by the opposing attorneyusually in the office of one of the attorneys, and in the presence of a court reporter, who makes a written record of what is said. Depositions and other discovery procedures, such as physical examinations of persons claiming they were injured, help the attorneys learn the facts before the trial. The process greatly assists both attorneys in preparing for the trial and often leads to out-of-court settlements.

At this point, a pretrial hearing may be held by the judge and the attorneys to specify what issues of fact must be decided at the trial. Often, an attempt is made to resolve the differences without trial. If the attorneys cannot compromise and agree on some settlement, either party may ask the court to set a date for the trial.

Vocabulary notes:

to bring a civil action – возбудить гражданский иск (дело)	issue – предмет тяжбы
plaintiff –истец	issue of law – вопросы права
defendant – ответчик	issue of fact – фактическая сторона дела (спорный вопрос, когда одна сторона отрицает факты, приводимые другой стороной)
claim – иск; претензия	to introduce – приводить
to justify – оправдывать, объяснять, подтверждать	to serve - вручать
alleged – утверждаемый	to deny - отрицать
allegedly – будто бы, якобы	to win the case – выиграть дело
relief demanded – требуемая помощь	opposing attorney – прокурор
complaint – иск, жалоба	court reporter – протоколист суда
filing of complaint – подача иска	under oath – под присягой
attorney – адвокат; юрист	default judgment – заочное решение суда в пользу истца (вследствие неявки ответчика)
constitute a wrong – составлять правонарушение	discovery procedures – процедура нахождения документов, которые могли бы послужить поддержкой в доказательстве требований той или иной стороны
summons – судебная повестка, вызов в суд	deposition – письменное показание под присягой
answer – возражение ответчика	to file – обращаться (с заявлением, прошением), подавать какой-л. документ (for; with)
otherwise – иначе, иным способом; по-другому	default – неявка в суд
liability – ответственность	out-of-court settlement – внесудебное урегулирование; соглашение
to excuse from liability - освобождать от ответственности	pretrial hearing – предварительное разбирательство дела судьей и адвокатами
to enforce a private right – осуществить личные права

II. Answer the following questions:

1. What are the two parties to the civil action?

2. Who files the complaint?

3. What is an answer?

4. What is a deposition?

5. What may the defendant do in an answer to the claim?

6. What are the discovery procedures needed for?

7. What is the role of a court reporter?

8. What is a pretrial hearing?

III. Match the following terms with their definitions:

1. answer	a. one who brings a civil action
2. complaint	b. conference of the judge with the opposing attorneys before the trial
3. default judgment	c. court-ordered means of getting facts about the dis­pute from the opposing party and witnesses before the trial
4. deposition	d. judgment given (without a trial) to the plaintiff when the defendant fails to answer the complaint
5. discovery procedures	e. pretrial questioning of the opposing party and wit­ nesses under oath
6. plaintiff	f. defendant’s statement in reply to the plaintiff’s complaint
7. pretrial hearing	g. court order directing the defendant to answer the plaintiff’s complaint
8. summons	h. first paper in a civil action, filed by the plaintiff, stating the claim for judgment

IV. Math the following English expressions with their Russian equivalents:

1. evidence for the plaintiff	a. вызывать истца в суд
2. judgment for the plaintiff	b. выступать в суде в качестве адвоката истца
3. plaintiff’s claim	c. доказательства в пользу истца
4. to appear to the plaintiff	d. исковое требование
5. to call the plaintiff	e. свидетель, выставленный истцом
6. witness by the plaintiff	f. судебное решение в пользу истца

V. The Russian expression СУДЕБНЫЙ ПРОЦЕСС has the following equivalents in English:

UNIT 3

CRIMINAL PROSECUTION

TEXT 3A

I. Read and translate the text using the words and word combinations after it:

TEXT 3B

I. Read and translate the text using the words and word combinations after it:

WHO GIVES THE JUDGMENT?

After the verdict of a jury has been returned, the judge, in accordance with the verdict, pronounces (or gives) a judgment. The judgment is the final result of the trial. In a criminal action the judgment is the sentencing of the defendant to jail or prison, or it is the imposition of other punishment, such as a fine.

In a civil action, the judgment will normally be for a sum of money if the plaintiff wins. If the defendant wins, the judgment will merely be «judgment for the defendant.» The loser is sometimes required to pay the court of the trial, but ordinarily each party pays his or her own attorney’s fees. As a consequence, even the winning defendant may incur losses in money, as well as in time and energy.

Generally a judgment of a lower court is not final in regard to the rights of the parties. Either of the parties may have the case reviewed for errors by a higher court. As was explained earlier, issues of law are decided by the judge. If either party believes the judge did not rule properly on any such issue, an appeal against the judgment(appeal claiming error) may be made to a higher court.

When an appeal is taken, the higher court may find that an important error was made during the trial in the lower court. Examples of errors would include incorrect instructions to the jury, admission of evidence that should have been admitted. In such an event, the court may modify or reverse the judgment of the lower court or order a new trial. If there is no error in the record, the reviewing court will affirm the judgment of the lower court.

TEXT 3C

I. Read and translate the text. Sum up the information you’ve learned from it:

SELECTION OF THE TRIAL JURY

The first step in the selection of the trial jury is the selection of a “ jury panel”. When you are selected for a jury panel you will be directed to report, along with other panel members, to a courtroom in which a case is to be heard once a jury is selected. The judge assigned to that case will tell you about the case and will introduce the lawyers and the people involved in the case. You will also take an oath, by which toy promise to answer all questions truthfully. Following this explanation of the case and the taking of the oath, the judge and the lawyers will question you and the other members of the panel to find out if you have any personal interest in it, or any feelings that might make it hard for you to be impartial. This process of questioning is called Voir Dire, a phrase meaning “to speak the truth”.

Many of the questions the judge and lawyers ask you during Voir Dire may seem very personal to you, but you should answer them completely and honestly. Remember that the lawyers are not trying to embarrass you, but are trying to make sure that members of the jury do not have opinions or past experiences which might prevent them from making an impartial decision.

During Voir Dire the lawyers may ask the judge to excuse you or another member of the panel from sitting on the jury for this particular case. This is called challenging a juror. There are two types of the challenges. The first is called achallenging for cause, which means that the lawyer has a specific reason for thinking that the juror would not be able to be impartial. For example, the case may involve the theft of a car. If one of the jurors has had a car stolen and still feels angry or upset about it, the lawyer for the person accused of the theft could ask that the juror be excused for that reason. There is no limit on the number of the panel members that the lawyers may have excused for cause.

The second type of the challenge is called a peremptory challenge, which means that the lawyer does not have to state a reason for asking that the juror be excused. Like challenges for cause, peremptory challenges are designed to allow lawyers to do their best to assure that their clients will have afair trial. Unlike challenges for cause, however, the number of peremptory challenges is limited.

Those jurors who have not been challenged become thejury for the case. Depending on the kind of case, there will be either six or twelve jurors. The judge may also allow selection of one or more alternate jurors, who will serve if one of the jurors is unable to do so because of illness or some other reason.

Vocabulary notes:

«jury panel» - состав присяжных заседателей	to excuse – освободить от обязанности
to take an oath –принять присягу	peremptory challenge – немотивированный отвод
impartial – непредвзятый	to assure – удостовериться, убедиться
to embarrass – смутить, запутать	fair trial – справедливое судебное разбирательство
to prevent - мешать	to challenge – давать отвод (присяжным, составу суда)
challenging a juror – отвод присяжного	jury for the case – присяжные, подобранные для судебного рассмотрения дела
challenging for cause – мотивированный отвод	alternate juror– присяжный запасного состава
Voir Dire –говорить правду

II. Answer the following questions:

1. What is the aim of Voir Dire?

2. What does the procedure of Voir Dire consist of?

3. What is a challenging a jury?

4. What are the types of challenge?

5. Why is the number of peremptory challenges limited?

6. What is the number of jurors sitting on a case?

7. Who are alternate jurors?

III. Find in the text above the English equivalents for the following words and expressions:

1. выбирать в состав присяжных

2. обещать отвечать на все вопросы правдиво

3. прошлый опыт

4. показаться очень личным

5. особая причина

6. непредвзятое решение

7. человек, обвиненный в воровстве

8. выяснить

9. личная заинтересованность

10. опрашивать

11. делать все возможное

12. в зависимости от вида дела

13. устанавливать причину

14. зал судебного заседания

IV. Match the following English expressions with their Russian equivalents:

1. jury – box	a. суд общественного мнения
2. jury of public opinion	b.состав присяжных из другой области или юрисдикции, чем та, где был заявлен иск
3. jury tampering	c.состав присяжных, принимающих участие в слушании дела, в котором стороны не имеют права на суд присяжных
4. jury trial	d. попытка оказать давление на присяжных
5. calling the jury	e. скамья присяжных
6. advisory jury	f.составлять список присяжных
7. foreign jury	g.специальный состав присяжных
8. good jury	h.формирование состава жюри присяжных
9. impanel a jury	i. суд присяжных
10. pack a jury	j.специальный состав присяжных, специальное жюри
11. serve on a jury	k. подбирать пристрастный состав присяжных
12. special jury	l.исполнять обязанности присяжного

UNIT 4

CLASSIFICATION OF CRIMES

TEXT 4A

I. Read and translate the text using the words and word combinations after it:

WHAT ARE CRIMES?

It is very important to know which acts are criminal.

Offenses Against Society

The most fundamental characteristic of a crime is that it is a punishable offense against society. Consequently, when a crime occurs, society, acting through such employees as the police and prosecutors, attempts to identify, arrest, prosecute, and punish the criminal. These measures are designed to protect society rather than to aid the victim of the crime. Victims of almost all crimes can sue identified criminals for civil damages, but seldom do because it is costly and difficult to collect from such defendants.

Elements of Crimes

Before anyone can be convicted of a crime, three elements usually must be proved at the trial. They are:

1. a duty to do or not to do a certain thing,

2. a violation of the duty, and

3. criminal intent.

Duty.The duty to do or not to do a certain thing usually is described by statutes which prohibit certain conduct. Generally only conduct that is serious -involving violence or theft of property — is classified as an offense against society and therefore criminal.

Violation of the Duty. The breach of dutymust also be proved in a criminal trial. This is the specific conduct by the defendant, which violates the duty. For example, batteryis always a crime. Criminal battery is often defined in statutes as «the intentional causing of corporal harm». Corporal harmmeans bodily harm. A breach of this duty could be established in a trial by the testimony of a witness who swore that she saw the defendant delib­erately punch the victim.

Criminal Intent. The third element, criminal intent, must be proved in most cases. Criminal intent generally means that the defendant intended to commit the act and intended to do evil.

A few crimes do not require criminal intent. These are generally less serious crimes, for which a jail sentence is very unlikely. Traffic offenses fall within this classification. You may not have intended to speed or have intended evil but you have still committed this crime.

Today, statutes of most states fix the age of criminal liability at 18, but the figure ranges from 16 to 19. Statutes often provide that minorsas young as 13 or 16 may be tried and punished as adults if they are accused of serious crimes such as murder. Generally, however, what is a crime for adults is juvenile delinquency for minors.

Ignorance or mistake is generally no excuse for violating a law. A person is presumed to know what the law is. To have criminal intent, one must have sufficient mental capacity at the time one commits a crime to know the difference between right and wrong and to be capable of deciding what to do. Accordingly, insane persons are not held liable for their criminal acts.

Normally neither voluntary intoxication nor drug abuseis a good defense against a criminal charge.

Vocabulary notes:

punishable offence against society–наказуемое преступление против общества	to do evil – творить зло
victim of the crime – жертва преступления	jail sentence – тюремное заключение
to be convicted of a crime –заставить признаться в преступлении	to commit a crime – совершать преступление
violation of the duty – нарушение обязательства	minor – несовершеннолетний преступник
criminal intent – преступное намерение	to be accused of – обвиняться
statute –статут,законодательный акт	juvenile delinquency – подростковая преступность
breach of duty – нарушение лицом своих обязательств	ignorance – незнание
battery – побои, оскорбление действием	insane person – душевнобольной человек
corporal harm – телесное повреждение	voluntary intoxication – добровольной принятие алкоголя
punch – ударять кулаком	drug abuse – злоупотребление наркотиками

II. Answer the following questions:

1. What is the most fundamental characteristic of a crime?

2. What are the three elements of a crime?

3. What is the age of criminal liability?

4. What is the age of criminal liability for serious crimes?

5. What is the criminal intent?

6. What is the criminal juvenile delinquency?

III. The word CRIME has the following meanings in Russian:

Преступление

сrime against humanity - преступление против человечества

Преступность

сrime wave – волна преступности

TEXT 4B

I. Read and translate the text using the words and word combinations after it:

HOW ARE CRIMES CLASSIFIED?

Crimes may be classified in various ways. One type of classification is given below. As you read the following list, however, keep in mind that human beings are the ultimate victims in all crimes:

1. crimes against a person (murder, assault and battery, kidnapping, rape),

2. crimes against property (larceny, robbery, hijacking loaded trucks, embezzlement, receiving stolen property),

3. crimes against the government and the
administration of justice (treason, tax evasion,
bribery, counterfeiting, perjury),

4. crimes against public peace and order (rioting,
carrying weapons, drunk and disorderly conduct,
illegal speeding),

5. crimes against buildings (burglary, arson, criminal
trespass),

6. crimes against consumers (fraudulent sale of wild
cat securities), or

7. crimes against decency (bigamy, obscenity,
prostitution, sexual harassment).

Crimes are classified in terms of their seriousness as felonies or misdemeanors.

Felonies

A felony is a crime of a serious nature. It exists when the act:

1) is labeled so by law or

2) is punishable by death or confinement for more
than one year in prison.

Murder, kidnapping, arson, rape, robbery, burglary, embezzlement, forgery, larceny (also called theft) of large sums, and perjury are examples of felonies. A person who lies when under oath commits perjury.

Misdemeanors

A misdemeanor is a crime of a less serious nature. It is usually punishable 1) by confinement in a jail for less than one year, 2) by fine, or 3) by both confinement and fine. Crimes such as drunkenness in public, driving an automobile at an illegal speed, shoplifting, and larceny of small sums are usually misdemeanors. A lesser misdemeanor is known as an infraction. Parking overtime on metered parking, failing to clear snow from sidewalks, and littering are examples of infractions. Ordinarily, no jury is allowed in cases involving infractions because the punishment is no more than a fine.

Vocabulary notes:

ultimate victim – основная, главная жертва	carrying weapons –ношение оружия
murder – убийство	drunk and disorderly conduct – поведение в пьяном состоянии и нарушение общественного порядка
assault –оскорбление и угроза физическим насилием	illegal speeding –езда с недозволенной скоростью
kidnapping –киднэппинг, похищение людей	burglary -кража со взломом
rape –изнасилование	criminal trespass –противоправное нарушение владений
larceny –кража	fraudulent sale –продажа во вред кредиторам
robbery –грабеж	wild cat securities –ничего не стоящие ценные бумаги
hijacking -нападение, ограбление; угон самолета	bigamy –бигамия; двоеженство
receiving stolen property –укрывание краденного	obscenity –непристойная брань
loaded trucks –перегруженные грузовики	prostitution -проституция
embezzlement –растрата; присвоение(денег, имущества)	sexual harassment -сексуальная агрессия (в основном на рабочем месте)
treason –измена; особо тяжкое преступление; супружеская измена; предательство	felony –уголовное преступление
tax evasion –уклонение от уплаты налогов	misdemeanor –судебно-наказуемый проступок
bribery -взяточничество	confinement –лишение свободы, заключение
counterfeiting -подделка	shoplifting –магазинная кража
perjury -лжесвидетельство	infraction –нарушение правил
rioting –нарушение общественной тишины и порядка

II. Answer the following questions:

1. What is one of the types of the classifications of crimes?

2. How crimes can be classified as well?

3. What is felony? And what crimes belong to this group of felonies?

4. What is the punishment for felony?

5. What is misdemeanor? What crimes from this group can you name?

6. What is the punishment for misdemeanor?

III. Match the following:

1. murder	a. a scene of noisy, uncontrolled, often violent behaviour by a person or large disorderly crowd of people
2. arson	b. taking someone away illegally and usually by force, in order to demand esp. money for their safe return
3. rape	c. the giving or taking of bribes (in form of money, property)
4. burglary	d. the crime of setting fire to property
5. robbery	e. the crime of raping someone (esp. with woman) without their will
6. kidnapping	f. taking control of (esp. an aircraft) by using the threat of force, usually in order to make political demands
7. shoplifting	g. the state of being married to two people at the same time
8. hijacking	h. the crime of entering a building (esp. a home) by force with the intention of stealing
9. bigamy	i. taking goods from the shop without paying
10. obscenity	j. the crime of killing a person intentionally
11. larceny	k. a lie told on purpose, esp. in a court of law
12. assault	l. the crime of taking someone else’s property
13. bribery	m. entering privately owned property or land without permission
14. perjury	n. a crime that is less serious than, for example, stealing or murder
15. rioting	o. serious crime such as murder or armed robbery
16. trespass	p. an obscene word or action
17. felony	q. a violent attack esp. a sudden one
18. misdemeanour	r. an act of stealing

IV. Match the name of a criminal with the suitable definition of the offence:

1.a burglar	a. anyone who breaks law
2.a hijacker	b. attacks and robs people in the street
3. a hooligan	c. breaks into houses or other buildings to steal
4. a kidnapper	d. causes damage or disturbance in public places
5. a mugger	e. kills someone
6.a pickpocket	f. murders for political reasons or reward
7. a murderer	g. illegally sets fire to someone’s house or property
8. a robber	h. someone who steals
9. a shop-lifter	i. steals money or things by force from people or places
10. a thief	j. steals things from people’s pockets
11. an arsonist	k. steals from shops while acting as an ordinary customer
12. an assassin	l. takes away people by force and demands money for their return
13. an offender	m. takes control of a plane by force and makes the pilot change course

V. Translate into Russian:

1. A crime is an offense against society. In order to convict, the prosecution must establish a duty to do or not to do a certain thing, a violation of the duty, and, in most cases, criminal intent.

2. A crime is punishable by the appropriate government
— federal, state, or local.

3. Crimes are generally divided into (a) felonies and (b)
misdemeanors.

4. Generally any adult capable of knowing the differ­ence between right and wrong is responsible for his
or her crimes.

5. Generally what would be criminal conduct for an adult
is juvenile delinquency for a minor, with lighter pen­alties and an emphasis on reform and rehabilitation.

TEXT 4C

I. Read and translate the text. Sum up the information you’ve learned from it:

Larceny

Larceny (commonly known as theft) is the wrongful taking of money or personal property belonging to someone else. Variations of larceny include robbery (taking property person in immediate presence and against the victim's will, and by force or by causing fear) and burglary (entering a building with the intent to commit a crime). Other types of larceny include shoplifting, pickpocketing, and purse snatching.

Larceny may be either a felony or a misdemeanor. The Classification is determined by the value of the property stolen and the circumstances surrounding the act. However, burglary is always a felony. In addition, if the burglar sells the stolen goods, he is guilty of two crimes - burglary and selling stolen property.

Receiving Stolen Property

Knowingly receiving stolen property is an offense separate from larceny. It consists of receiving, concealing, or buying property known to be stolen, with intent to deprive the rightful owner of the property. One who receives stolen property is known as a fence (скупщик краденного). Special statutes deal with the fencing of types of property that are commonly stolen, such as motor vehicles and valuable airplane, ship, or truck cargoes.

False Pretenses

One who obtains money or other property from another person by lying about a past or existing fact is guilty of false pretenses (also known as false representation). This crime differs from larceny because the victim parts with the property voluntarily. False pretenses is a type of fraud.

Forgery

Forgery is falsely making or altering any writing (for example the signature of another person). In forgery there must be intent to defraud either the person whose name is signed or someone else. The most common forgeries are found on checks when one has signed another's name without permission to do so. Forgery also includes altering a check, such as when one changes «$7» to «$70» and «Seven» to «Seventy». Forgery is usually a felony.

Bribery

Briberyis offering or giving to a government official money or anything of value which the official was not authorized to receive in order to influence performance of an official duty. Accepting the money or offer is also bribery.

Extortion

Extortion(commonly known as blackmail) is obtaining money or property from a person by wrongful use of force, fear, or the power of office. The