Teaching Profession in the USA

Requirements for teachers’ certificate vary among 50 states. Usually the state department of education, or a state certification board, issues certificates which permit teachers to be employed within the state. Forty-four of the 50 states require at least the completion of a four-year course, with the bachelor’s degree, as a minimum for high school teaching: the tendency to require a fifth year beyond the bachelor’s degree is increasing. Graduation from a two-year normal school or at least two years of college education is the minimum requirement for elementary teaching in 36 states; others demand the completion of a four-year course and the bachelor’s degree.
Because of the decentralization of school control in the USA teachers are employed by local districts rather than by the national government. The American teacher does not have the absolute security of tenure which the French or Australian teacher enjoys. A higher proportion of the teaching force are women than in some other countries.
The teacher-training institutions have not been able to provide sufficient numbers of fully trained teachers to replace those retiring and dropping out of the profession and at the same time to meet the requirements for new classes each year. The problem of recruiting and suply of teachers remains a serious one. In general the problem of shortage of teachers has not been met by lowering certification standards.

Education in England

Education in England is overseen by the Department for Children, Schools and Families and the Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills. At a local level the local authorities take responsibility for implementing policy for public education and state schools.

Full-time education is compulsory for all children aged between 5 and 16 (inclusive). Students may then continue their secondary studies for a further two years (sixth form), leading most typically to an A level qualification, although other qualifications and courses exist, including GNVQ and the International Baccalaureate. The leaving age for compulsory education was raised to 18 by the Education and Skills Act 2008. The change will take effect in 2013 for 17 year olds and 2015 for 18 year olds.^[7] State-provided schools are free of charge to students, and there is also a tradition of independent schooling, but parents may choose to educate their children by any suitable means.

Higher education typically begins with a 3-year Bachelor's Degree. Postgraduate degrees include Master's Degrees, either taught or by research, and Doctor of Philosophy, a research degree that usually takes at least 3 years. Universities require a Royal Charter in order to issue degrees, and all but one are financed by the state with a low level of fees for students.

// [edit] Primary and secondary education

The school year begins on the 1st of September. Education is compulsory for all children from the term after their fifth birthday to the last Friday in June of the school year in which they turn 16.^[8] This will be raised in 2013 to the year in which they turn 17 and in 2015 to the year in which they turn 18.^[7]

[edit] The state-funded school system

State-run schools and colleges are financed through national taxation, and take pupils free of charge between the ages of 3 and 18. The schools may levy charges for activities such as swimming, theatre visits and field trips, provided the charges are voluntary, thus ensuring that those who cannot afford to pay are allowed to participate in such events. Approximately 93% of English schoolchildren attend such schools.

A significant minority of state-funded schools are faith schools, which are attached to religious groups, most often the Church of England or the Roman Catholic Church. There are also a small number of state-funded boarding schools, which typically charge for board but not tuition.

Nearly 90% of state-funded secondary schools are specialist schools, receiving extra funding to develop one or more subjects in which the school specialises.

[edit] School years

The table below describes the most common patterns for schooling in the state sector in England:

Age on 1st Sept	Year	Curriculum stage	Schools
	Nursery	Foundation Stage	Nursery school
	Reception	Infant school	Primary school	First school
	Year 1	Key Stage 1
	Year 2
	Year 3	Key Stage 2	Junior school
	Year 4
	Year 5	Middle school
	Year 6
	Year 7	Key Stage 3	Secondary school	Secondary school with Sixth Form
	Year 8
	Year 9	Upper school
	Year 10	Key Stage 4 / GCSE
	Year 11
	Year 12	Sixth Form / A-level	Sixth form college
	Year 13

In the vast majority of cases, pupils progress from primary to secondary levels at age 11; in some areas either or both of the primary and secondary levels are further subdivided. A few areas have three-tier education systems with an intermediate middle level from age 9 to 13.

State-funded nursery education is available from the age of 3, and may be full-time or part-time. If registered with a state school attendance is compulsory beginning with the term following the child's 5th birthday. Children can be enrolled in the reception year in September of that school year thus beginning school at age 4 or 4.5. Unless the student chooses to stay within the education system school attendance ends on the last Friday in June during the academic year in which a student attains the age of 16.^[8]

Under the National Curriculum system, all pupils undergo Standard Assessment Tests (SATs) towards the ends of Key Stage 2 in core subjects, but not foundation subjects, where teacher assessment is used. They normally take GCSE exams in the last two years of Key Stage 4, but may take other Level 2 qualifications, such as GNVQ. Former tests at the end of Key Stage 3 were abandoned after the 2008 tests, when severe problems emerged concerning the marking procedures. Now at Key Stages 1 and 3, assessment is by teacher assessment against the National Curriculum Attainment Targets for all subjects. Tests results for schools are published, and are an important measure of their performance.^[9][10]

Historically, years 7 to 12/13 used to be known as 'first form' to 'lower/upper sixth form'. There now exists a common parallel terminology for sixth form only: 'year 12/lower 6th' and 'year 13/upper 6th'. The use of the term 'sixth form' reflects its distinct, voluntary nature and situation as the A-level years. Even more historically, this arose from the system in public schools, where all forms were divided into Lower, Upper, and sometimes Middle sections. Year 7 is equivalent to 'Upper Third Form', Year 8 would have been known as 'Lower Fourth', and so on. In some private schools such as Withington Girls' School, this way of counting the years (Lower fourth, Upper fourth, Lower Fifth etc) is still used.

[edit] Curriculum

Main article: National Curriculum

All maintained schools in England are required to follow the National Curriculum, which is made up of twelve subjects.^[11] The core subjects—English, Mathematics and Science—are compulsory for all students aged 5 to 16. The other foundation subjects are compulsory at one or more Key Stages:

• Art & Design
• Citizenship
• Design & Technology
• Geography
• History
• Information & Communication Technology
• Modern Foreign Languages
• Music
• Physical Education

In addition, other statutory subjects are not covered by the National Curriculum, including Religious Education in all year groups, and Career education, Sex education and Work-related learning at secondary age.^[11]

[edit] School governance

Almost all state-funded schools in England are maintained schools, which receive their funding from LAs, and are required to follow the national curriculum. In such schools, all teachers are employed under the nationally-agreed School Teachers' Pay and Conditions Document.

Since 1998, there have been 4 main types of maintained school in England:^[12][13][14]

• community schools (formerly county schools), in which the LA employs the schools' staff, owns the schools' lands and buildings and has primary responsibility for admissions.

St Barnabas Church of England Primary School, Oxford

• voluntary controlled schools, which are almost always church schools, with the lands and buildings often owned by a charitable foundation. However, the LA employs the schools' staff and has primary responsibility for admissions.
• voluntary aided schools, linked to a variety of organisations. They can be faith schools (often the Church of England or the Roman Catholic Church), or non-denominational schools, such as those linked to London Livery Companies. The charitable foundation contributes towards the capital costs of the school, and appoints a majority of the school governors. The governing body employs the staff and has primary responsibility for admissions.^[15]
• foundation schools, in which the governing body employs the staff and has primary responsibility for admissions. The school land and buildings are owned by the governing body or by a charitable foundation. The Foundation appoints a minority of governors. Many of these schools were formerly grant maintained schools. In 2005 the Labour government proposed allowing all schools to become Foundation schools if they wished.

There are also a smaller number of City Technology Colleges and academies, which are secondary schools funded and monitored directly by the Department for Children, Schools and Families.^[16]

All state-funded schools are regularly inspected by the Office for Standards in Education (Ofsted), which publishes reports of the quality of education at each school. Schools judged by Ofsted to be providing an inadequate standard of education may be placed in special measures, which may include replacing the governing body and senior staff.

[edit] Secondary schools by intake

See also: List of grammar schools in England

Wetherby High School, a typical former secondary modern school in Wetherby, West Yorkshire

English secondary schools are mostly comprehensive, except in a few areas that retain a form of the previous selective system (the Tripartite System), with students selected for grammar school by the Eleven plus exam. There are also a number of isolated fully selective grammar schools, and a few dozen partially selective schools. Specialist schools may also select up to 10% of their intake for aptitude in the specialism, though relatively few of them have taken up this option. Also, intakes of comprehensive schools can vary widely, especially in urban areas with several schools.^[17]

Sir Peter Newsam, Chief Schools Adjudicator 1999–2002, has argued that English schools can be divided into 8 types (with some overlap) based on the ability range of their intake:

1. "super-selective": almost all of the intake from the top 10%. These are the few highly selective grammar schools that dominate school performance tables.
2. "selective": almost all of the intake from the top 25%. These include grammar schools in areas where the Tripartite system survives.
3. "comprehensive (plus)": admit children of all abilities, but concentrated in the top 50%. These include partially selective schools and a few high-status faith schools in areas without selection.
4. comprehensive: intake with an ability distribution matching the population. These schools are most common in rural areas and small towns with no nearby selection, but a few occur in urban areas.
5. "comprehensive (minus)": admit children of all abilities, but with few in the top 25%. These include comprehensive schools with nearby selective schools "skimming" the intake.
6. secondary modern: hardly any of the intake in the top 25%, but an even distribution of the rest. These include non-selective schools in areas where the Tripartite system survives.
7. "secondary modern (minus)": no pupils in the top 25% and 10–15% in the next 25%. These schools are most common in urban areas where alternatives of types 1–5 are available.
8. "sub-secondary modern": intake heavily weighted toward the low end of the ability range.

This ranking is reflected in performance tables, and thus the schools' attractiveness to parents.^[18][19]

[edit] Independent schools

This section requires expansion.

Main article: Independent school (UK)

Approximately 7% of English schoolchildren attend privately run independent schools.^[4]

Education at independent schools is usually chargeable. Such schools, some of which are boarding schools, cover primary and secondary education and charge between £3000 to £30000 per year^{[citation needed]}. Some schools offer scholarships for those with particular skills or aptitudes or bursaries to allow less well-off students to attend.

[edit] Education otherwise than by schooling

The Education Act requires parents to ensure their children are educated either by attending school or otherwise. Increasing numbers of parents are choosing the otherwise option.^[20][21][22] This style of education is often referred to as Elective Home Education.^[23] The education can take many different forms^[24] ranging from homeschooling where a school style curriculum is followed at home to unschooling where any semblance of structure in the educational provision is abandoned. Parents do not need permission to educate their own children. There is no requirement to follow the National Curriculum or to give formal lessons. Parents do not need to be qualified teachers, or to follow school hours or terms.^[25] Parents who choose to educate their children otherwise than at school have to finance the education provision themselves.

[edit] Further education and higher education

Shrewsbury Sixth Form College in Shropshire.

Both state schools and independent schools take the GCSE examinations, which mark the end of compulsory education. Above school leaving age, the independent and state sectors are similarly structured. In the 16-18 age group, "sixth-form" education is not compulsory.

[edit] Further education

Students will typically study in either the Sixth Form of a School, a Sixth form college, or a further education college. These courses can also be studied by adults over 18. This sector is referred to as Further Education. All 16-18 students are encouraged (this is only mandatory in some institutions) to study Key Skills in Communication, Application of Number and Information Technology.

[edit] Higher education

The chapel of King's College, Cambridge University.

Students normally enter University from 18 onwards and study for an Academic Degree. Apart from a single private university, all undergraduate education is largely state financed (with tuition fees set at a maximum index-linked £3,145 per year, repayable after graduation contingent on attaining a certain level of income, and with the state paying all fees for students from the poorest backgrounds), and UK students are generally entitled to student loans for maintenance. The state does not control syllabuses, but it does influence admission procedures. Unlike most degrees, the state still has control over teacher training courses, and uses Ofsted inspectors to maintain standards.^[26]

The typical first degree offered at British universities is the Bachelor's degree (typically three years). Many institutions now offer an undergraduate Master's degree as a first degree, typically lasting four years. During a first degree students are known as undergraduates. The difference in fees between undergraduate and traditional postgraduate Master's degrees (and the possibility of securing LEA funding for the former) makes taking an undergraduate Master's degree as a first degree a more attractive option, although the novelty of undergraduate Master's degrees means that the relative educational merit of the two is currently unclear.

Some universities offer a vocationally-based Foundation degree, typically two years in length for those students who hope to continue to take a first degree but wish to remain in employment.

[edit] Postgraduate education

Students who have completed a first degree are eligible to undertake a postgraduate degree, which includes:

• Master's degree (typically taken in one year)
• Doctorate degree (typically taken in three years)

Postgraduate education is not automatically financed by the State, and so admission is in practice highly competitive.

[edit] Specialist qualifications

• Education: Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE), Certificate in Education (Cert Ed), C&G 7407 or Bachelor of Education (BA or BEd), most of which also incorporate Qualified Teacher Status (QTS).
• Law: Bachelor of Laws LL.B.
• Medicine: Bachelors of Medicine and Surgery studied at Medical school (United Kingdom)
• Business: Master of Business Administration MBA.

[edit] Fees

Undergraduates pay up to £3000 per annum (capped) in top-up fees and Postgraduates typically pay £3000 per annum however some institutions charge more. There are numerous bursaries (awarded to low income applicants) to offset the undergraduate fees, and for postgraduates, full scholarships are available for most subjects which are awarded competitively. Differing arrangements apply to English students studying in Scotland and Scottish / Welsh students studying in England. Non UK students at English universities are charged differing amounts, often in the region of £5000 - £20000 per annum^{[citation needed]} for undergraduate and postgraduate degrees. The actual amount differs by institution and subject with the lab based subjects charging a greater amount.

[edit] Adult education

Adult education, Continuing education or Lifelong learning is offered to students of all ages. These can include the vocational qualifications mentioned above and also:

• Access programme one or two year courses to allow adults access to university.
• Open University a distance learning program which can result in a Degree.
• Workers' Educational Association

A large number of semi-recreational courses, with or without qualifications, are made available by Local Education Authorities under the guise of Adult Education, such as holiday languages, crafts and yacht navigation.

System of education in Russia

Education system in Russia is similar to European and American education systems:

2 cycle education system:

• undergraduate level of education System in Russia: Bachelor degree,
• postgraduate level of education System in Russia: Master degree and Ph.D.

Credit transfer system.

Academic exchange programs on basis of ECTS (European Credit Transfer System).

European diploma supplement.

There is one difference between Russian and European education systems: 5-year engineer / Specialist programs.

Russia joined to Bolonia agreement (Integrating process of developing common European education system). So, the number of non-degree programs in Russia is decreasing.

Being a holder of the Secondary School Certificate or an equivalent, you can study through all levels, starting from Bachelor to Doctoral Studies.

A degree or diploma holder of any higher school can be admitted to a successive learning level after accreditation of his/her prior learning. The university can offer you instruction either in Russian or in English.

Those who would like to take courses in Russian must be fluent in Russian and present the Russian Language State Certificate as evidence. The most effective way in reaching this goal is to take the one year Preparatory Course.