Mandatory units to be completed for each

Route within each level.

* These units are available for accreditation in

addition to those necessary for the full NVQ/SVQ, if

required.

** This unit appears as an optional unit for

motorcycle technicians within the M & R Level 2

S/NVQ framework.

Units

Level 2

MET/Body Fitting

Level 2

Body repair

Level 2

Refinishing

Level 3

Refinishing

Level 3

MET/Body fitting

Level 3

Body repair

Mandatory framework

Mandatory framework

Mandatory framework

Mandatory framework

Mandatory framework

Mandatory framework

Preface xvii

Table P2Automotive skills: S/NVQ units and related sections

Units Related sections

G1 Contribute to workplace good housekeeping 2.1–2.8; 3.5; 12.6; 13.5

G2 Ensure your own actions, reduce risks to health 2.1–2.8; 9.13; 11.8; 12.6; 15.6; 16.11

and safety

G3 Maintain positive working relationships N/A

BP01 Remove and fit basic Mechanical, Electrical and Trim 1.3–1.5; 13.18

(MET) components to vehicles

BP02 Remove and fit non-welded non-structural 14.4.4–14.4.6

vehicle body panels

BP03 Remove and fit non-welded non-structural motorcycle N/A

body panels

BP04 Remove, renew and refit Mechanical, Electrical and 1.13–1.5; 13.18

Trim (MET) units within vehicle systems

BP05 Remove and replace vehicle non-structural 1.3–1.5; 3.1; 3.17; 4.13; 7.1–7.8;

body panels 14.4.9–14.4.11

BP06 Repair vehicle non-structural body panels 13.1–13.16

BP07 Prepare vehicle panels to accept foundation and topcoats 1.5; 16.9; 17.12–17.13

BP08 Prepare and apply foundation materials to vehicles 17.13; 17.16

BP09 Repair minor vehicle paint defects 17.5; 17.11

BP10 Carry out complete vehicle refinishing operations 17.1–17.20

BP11 Mix and match vehicle paint colours 17.1–17.6

BP12 Identify and rectify vehicle paint defects and faults 17.11; 17.12; 17.15; 17.19

BP13 Remove and replace vehicle body panels 1.1–1.5; 3.1; 7.1–7.8

BP14 Repair vehicle body panels 13.1–13.17; 14.1–14.5; 16.1–16.11

BP15 Remove and reinstate vehicle mechanical and electrical 13.18

systems and assemblies following accident damage

BP16 Remove and reinstate vehicle trim fitments following 4.13; 13.16.10; 14.4.9–14.4.11; 3.24.3

accident damage

BP17 Rectify vehicle misalignment 14.1–14.5

BP18 Repair glass reinforced panels and vehicle Bodies 16.1–16.11

MR06 Inspect vehicles N/A

MR09 Valet vehicles 14.4.14

This Page is Intentionally Left Blank

Acknowledgements

I wish to express my appreciation of assistance given by my colleagues in the Body Work and Painting

Section at Gateshead College, and especially that of Mr. O. Carr (NCTEC Final, CGLI Final Motor

Vehicle Painting and Industrial Finishing), who is a lecturer in motor vehicle spray painting and industrial

finishing and has compiled the information and illustrations in Chapter 17. I am also grateful for the

efficient help given by the library staff of the college.

I wish to thank my wife Norma for the many hours spent working at the computer to assist me again

throughout the revision of this edition. Also I would like to take this opportunity to thank my son Andrew

for the production of some of the photographs taken especially for this edition.

I would like to thank ICI’s Autocolor International Bodyshop Planning Consultant, Mr Ernest Godfrey,

a partner at Pickles Godfrey Design Partnership; Martin Ferguson, Planning Manager of Dana

Distribution Limited; and Gill Nichol, Editor of Bodyshop Magazine; for helping me compile the chapter

on bodyshop planning. I would also like to take this opportunity of offering my sincere thanks to the

following firms and/or their representatives who have so readily cooperated with me by permitting the

reproduction of data, illustrations and photographs:

AGA Ltd

Al Welders Ltd

Akzo Coatings PLC

Alcan Design and Development

Alkor Plastics (UK) Ltd

Aluminium Federation Ltd

Ambi-Rad Ltd

ARO Welding Ltd

Aston Martin Lagonda Ltd

Auchard Development Co. Ltd

Autoglym

Autokraft Ltd

Auto-Quote

Avdel Ltd

Bayer UK Ltd

Berger Industrial Coatings

Black and Decker Ltd

Blackburn College of Technology

Blackhawk Automotive Ltd

BMW

BOC Ltd

Bodyshop Magazine

Bodymaster UK

Bondaglass-Voss Ltd

Bostick Ltd

BP Chemicals (UK) Ltd

British Motor Industry Heritage Trust

British Standards Institution

British Steel Stainless

Brooklands College

Brooklands Museum

BSC Strip Product Group

Callow & Maddox Bros Ltd

Car Bench

Car-O-Liner UK Ltd

Celette UK Ltd

Cengar Universal Tool Company Ltd

Chicago Pneumatic Tool Co. Ltd

Chief Automotive Ltd

Chubb Fire Ltd

Citroen UK Ltd

Dana Distribution Ltd, Martyn Ferguson

Dataliner, Geotronics Ltd

Department for Transport

Department of Transport (USA)

Desoutter Automotive Ltd

DeVilbiss Automotive Refinishing Products

Dinol-Protectol Ltd

Dr Ahmed

Dr Barnard

Dr Ramnefors

DRG Kwikseal Products

Du Pont (UK) Ltd

Duramix

Dunlop Adhesives

East Coast Traders

Edwards Pearson Ltd

EEVC

xxAcknowledgements

ESAB Ltd

European Industrial Services

EuroNCAP

Express Garage

Facom Tools Ltd

Farécla Products Ltd

Farnborough College of Technology

Fifth Generation Technology Ltd

Fire Extinguishing Trades Association

Ford Motor Company Ltd

Forest Fasteners

Frost Auto Restoration Techniques Ltd

Fry’s Metals Ltd

George Marshall (Power Tools) Ltd

GE Plastics Ltd

GKN Screws and Fasteners Ltd

Glass’s Guide Service Ltd

Glasurit Automotive Refinish

Glas-Weld Systems (UK) Ltd

Go-Jo Industries Europe Ltd

Gramos Chemicals International Ltd

Gray Campling Ltd

Harboran Ltd

Herberts

Hooper & Co. (Coachbuilders) Ltd

Huck UK Ltd

Ian Williamson – IHMS Ltd

IBCAM Journal

ICI Autocolor

ICI Chemicals and Polymers Group

ICI Paints

Industrial and Trade Fairs Ltd

Institute of the Motor Industry

Institution of Engineering Designers

Institution of Mechanical Engineers

Jack Sealey Ltd

Jaguar Cars Ltd

James Holyfield – Automotive Skills

John Cotton (Colne) Ltd

Kärcher

Kenmore Computing Services Ltd

Kroll (UK) Ltd

Land Rover Ltd

Lotus Engineering

McLaren Cars

McLaren Racing

Mercedes Benz

Mick Ellender

Migatronic Welding Equipment Ltd

Mig Tig Arc Online

Minden Industrial Ltd

Morgan Motor Company Ltd

Motor Insurance Repair Centre (Thatcham)

Motorspart Industry Association

Murex Welding Products Ltd

3M Automotive Trades

National Adhesives & Resins Ltd

Nederman Ltd

Neill Tools Ltd

Nettlefolds Ltd

North West Kent College

Olympus Welding & Cutting Technology Ltd

Owens-Corning Fiberglas (GB) Ltd

Oxford Brookes University

Partco Engineering

Permabond

Performance Racing Industry (USA)

Pickles Godfrey Design Partnership, Ernest W.

Godfrey

Plastics and Rubber Institute

Power-Tec Body Shop Solutions

Proton

Racal Safety Ltd

Rachel Margetts – Graphic Designs

Rally Speed

Rebecca Maturin – AVC

Reliant Motors Ltd

Renault UK Ltd

Rolls-Royce Motor Car Ltd

Rover Cars

Saab-Scania

Schlegel (UK) Ltd

Scott Bader Co. Ltd

Selson Machine Tool Co. Ltd

SIP (Industrial Products) Ltd

SL Kars

Spraybake Ltd

SPSystems

Standard Forms Ltd

Stanners Ltd

Strode College, Street

Sun Electric UK Ltd

Sykes-Pickavant Ltd

Teroson UK

The Institute of Materials

The Motor Insurance Repair Research Centre

The National Motor Museum

Thornley and Knight Ltd

THATCHAM

Triplex Safety Glass

Acknowledgements xxi

Tri-Sphere Ltd

TRW United-Car Ltd

Tucker Fasteners Ltd

UK Fire International Ltd

United Continental Steels Ltd

USLB – AVC

Vauxhall Motors Ltd

VCA

Vehicle Builders and Repaires Association

Vitamol Ltd

Vines Guildford (BMW and MINI)

Volkswagen-Audi

Volvo Concessionaires Ltd

VOSA

W. David and Sons Limited

Welding & Metal Fabrication

Welwyn Tool Co. Ltd

Wheelforce V. L. Churchill

Wholesale Welding Supplies Ltd

A. Robinson

(List updated by W. A. Livesey)

This Page is Intentionally Left Blank

Glossary

AbrasiveA substance used for wearing away a surface by rubbing.

AccelerationAcceleration is the rate of change of speed.

AcceleratorA constituent of synthetic resin mix which hastens a reaction.

AccessoriesOptional extras not essential to the running of a vehicle, e.g. radio, heater.

AcetoneA liquid hydrocarbon capable of dissolving twenty-five times its own volume of acetylene gas

at atmospheric pressure.

AcetyleneA combustible gas which is mixed with oxygen and used in oxy-acetylene welding.

AdhesionThe ability to adhere to a surface.

AdhesiveA substance that allows two surfaces to adhere together.

AdjustmentsNecessary alterations to improve tolerances in fit.

Air bagsA passive safety restraint system that inflates automatically on vehicle impact to protect the

driver.

AlignmentThe operation of bringing into line two or more specified points on a vehicle structure.

All-metal constructionGenerally this applies to those body shells of both private cars and light

commercial vehicles in which the construction is in the form of steel pressings assembled by

welding, thus forming a fabricated unit.

AlloyA mixture of two or more metals with, or without, other metallic or non-metallic elements.

A-postA structural pillar on which the front door is hung.

BackfireIn gas welding, a momentary return of gases indicated in the blowpipe by a pop or loud bang,

the flame immediately recovering and burning normally at the blowpipe.

Backhand weldingSometimes classified as ‘rightward welding’. A technique in which the flame is

directed backwards against the completed part of the weld.

Back lightA central window in the rear panel of the driving cab, or the rear window of a saloon body.

BC-postCentral pillar acting as a central roof and side support between the rear and the front of the

car.

Bevel angleThe angle of a prepared edge creating a bevel prior to welding.

BilletAn oblong piece of metal having a square section.

BinderA resin or cementing constituent of a compound.

BlowpipeA tool used for welding, known as a welding torch.

BodyThe structured part of a vehicle which encompasses the passenger, engine and luggage compartments.

Body hardwareFunctional accessories of vehicle body, e.g. door handles.

Body lock pillarA body pillar that incorporates a lock striker plate.

Body mountingConventional body mounted on car chassis in composite method of body construction.

Body panelsPressed metal panels, or plastic moulded composite panels, which are fastened together to

form the skin of a car body.

Body side mouldingThe exterior trim moulding fastened to the exterior of the body in a horizontal

position.

Body sillThe panel directly below the bottom of the doors.

Body spoonA body repairer’s hand tool.

Body trimThe materials which are used in the interior of the body for lining and upholstery.

BonnetThe metal cover over the engine compartment.

BootA compartment provided in a car body which takes the luggage and often the spare wheel and

fuel tank. It may be at the front or rear of the body depending upon the location of the engine.

Boot lidDoor covering luggage compartment.

xxivGlossary

Bottom sideThe frame member of the base of the body extending along the full of the main portion of

the body.

BrazingA non-fusion process in which the filler metal has a lower melting point than the parent

metal(s).

BucklesThe resulting distortion of body panels after collision.

BulkheadA transverse support in a body structure.

BumpingReshaping metal with a hammer and dolly.

BurrThe resulting condition left on a metal edge after cutting or filing.

Bursting discA type of pressure relief device which consists of a disc, usually of metal, which is so

held that it confines the pressure of the cylinder under normal conditions. The disc is intended to rupture

between limits of over-pressure due to abnormal conditions, particularly when the cylinder is

exposed to fire.

Butt jointA welded joint in which the ends or edges of two pieces of metal directly face each other.

CalibrateTo check irregularities in measuring instruments.

Cant panelThe curved section of the roof top running between the comparatively flat top and the rain

drip or gutter.

CantrailThe longitudinal framing of the roof at the joint.

Carbon dioxideA heavy colourless and incombustible gas which results from the perfect combustion

of carbon.

Carbon fibreAn extremely strong, though expensive, reinforcement which can be used in conjunction

with fibreglass. It gives increased rigidity to the laminate.

Carbonizing flameAn oxy-acetylene flame adjustment created by an excess of acetylene over oxygen,

resulting in an excess of carbon in the flame.

Case hardeningThis is the process of hardening the outer case or shell articles, which is accomplished

by inducing additional carbon into the case of the steel by a variety of methods.

CatalystA chemical substance which brings about a chemical change to produce a different substance.

Catalyst dispenserA purpose-designed container for measuring and dispensing liquid catalyst without

splashing.

Centre pillarThe centre vertical support of a four-door saloon.

ChassisThe base frame of a motor vehicle of composite construction to which the body is attached.

Check valueA safety device that controls the passage of gas or air in one direction, in order to prevent

the reversal of gas flow and a consequent accident.

Chemical reactionThe resulting change when two or more chemical substances are mixed.

Chopped strand matChopped strands bonded into a mat to produce a popular economical generalpurpose

reinforcement.

Chopped strandsAs the name suggests, glass fibre strands chopped into short (about 12 mm) lengths.

They can be used as fillers. Useful for bodywork repairs.

CircuitThe path along which electricity flows. When the path is continuous, the circuit is closed and

the current flows. When the path is broken, the circuit is open and no current flows.

Cold curingGeneric term for materials which harden at room temperatures, after the addition of

catalyst.

Collapsible steering columnA safety feature in the form of an energy-absorbing steering column

designed to collapse on impact.

Compartment shelf panelThe horizontal panel situated between the rear seat back and the back window.

Compression ratio (CR) This is the ratio between the volume of the gas above the piston when it is at

BDC compared to that at TDC.

Compressive strengthThe ability of a material to withstand being crushed. It is found by testing a

sample to failure: the load applied, divided by the cross section of the sample, gives the compressive

strength.

Glossary xxv

CondensationA change of state from a gas to a liquid caused by temperature or pressure changes. It

may also be formed by moisture from the air being deposited on a cool surface.

ConductorAny material or substance that allows current or heat to flow through it.

Copper acetylideA spontaneously explosive and inflammable substance which forms when acetylene

is passed through a copper tube.

CorrosionThe wearing away or gradual destruction of a substance, e.g. rusting of metal.

CuringThe change of a binder from soluble fusible state to insoluble infusible state by chemical

action.

Curing timeThe time needed for liquid resin to reach a solid state after the catalyst has been added.

Cutting tipA torch especially adapted for cutting.

CylinderSteel containers used for storage of compressed gases.

Dash panelA panel attached to the front bulkhead assembly and which provides a mounting for all

instruments necessary to check the performance of the vehicle.

Deposited metalFiller metal from a welding rod or electrode which has been melted by a welding

process and applied in the form of a joint or built up.

DiagnosisThe determination, by examination, of the cause of a problem.

DingingStraightening damaged metal with spoons, hammers or dollies. In the early days the dingman

was the tradesman who worked on completed bodies to remove minor imperfections without injury to

the high gloss lacquer or varnish.

Dinging hammerA special hammer used for dinging or removal of dents.

Direct damagePrimary damage which results from an impact on the area in actual contact with the

object causing the damage.

Dolly blockA hand tool, made from special steel, shaped to suit the contour of various panel assemblies

and used in conjunction with a planishing hammer to smooth out damaged panel surfaces.

Door skinsOutside door panels.

Door trimThe interior lining of a door.

D-postThe rear standing pillar providing a shut face for the rear door and forming the rear quarter

panel area.

Drip mouldingA roof trough to direct water from door openings.

ElectrodeThe usual term for the filler rod which is deposited when using the electric arc welding

process.

ElectrolyteA substance which dissolves in water to give a solution capable of conducting an electric

current.

EpoxyBased on an epoxy resin which is mixed with a hardener.

EvaporationA change of state from solid or liquid into vapour.

ExpansionThe increase in the dimensions of metals due to heat.

ExtrudeTo draw into lengths.

FenderAmerican term for wing.

FillerInorganic types used to extend low-pressure resins, usually polyesters.

Filler metalMetal added to a weld in the form of a rod, electrode or coil.

Fillet weldA weld in which two surfaces at right angles to one another are welded together.

FirewallPanel dividing engine compartment from interior of body.

FlangeA reinforcement on the edge of a panel formed at approximately right angles to the panel.

FlashbackOccurs when the flame disappears from the end of the welding tip and the gases burn in the

torch.

FlatA panel is said to be flat when insufficient shaping has caused uneven contours and so flat areas

are obvious.

Floor panMain floor of the passenger compartment of an underbody assembly.

FluxA chemical material or gas used to dissolve and prevent the formation of surface oxides when soldering,

brazing or welding.

xxviGlossary

Foams (flexible)A resin which is often used for cushioning in the automobile industries. These foams

are usually urethanes.

Foams (rigid)A resin with a higher modulus than the flexible foams. These are also normally urethanes

and are used in more structural applications such as cores in sandwich constructions.

ForceMass is to do with the number of atoms or molecules in a material.

Four-doorDenotes the type of saloon body having four doors.

Frame gaugesSelf-centring alignment gauges which are hung from a car’s underbody.

FrictionPressing the brake pads against the discs causes friction which converts the dynamic energy of

the moving vehicle into heat energy.

FrictionThe resistance to motion that a body meets when moving over another.

Fusion weldingA process in which metals are welded together by bringing them to the molten state at

the surface to be joined, with or without the addition of filler metal, and without the application of

mechanical pressure or blows.

Gas weldingA fusion welding process which uses a gas flame to provide the welding heat.

GelResin takes on a gel-like consistency (gels) usually within 10–15 minutes of being catalyzed. At

this point it is impossible to spray, paint or pour. Stored resin which has passed its shelf life may gel

without being catalyzed.

GelcoatA thixotropic resin normally used without reinforcement and applied first to the mould. It

forms the smooth shiny surface of the finished article.

Glass fibreGlass filaments drawn together into fibres and treated for use as reinforcement.

HardenerA chemical curing or hardening agent.

HardeningHeating to a critical temperature followed by a relatively rapid rate of cooling.

HeadliningThe cloth or other material used to cover the inner surface of the car roof.

Heat and temperatureTemperature is the hotness or coldness of a body measured in degrees centigrade

(C, also called Celsius) or absolute temperature in Kelvin (K). Heat is energy measured in joules (J).

HeelboardThe vertical board or panel under the rear seat which forms the support for the seat cushion.

Hinge pillarA pillar on which a door is swung.

HoodAmerican term for bonnet.

Hydraulic pressurePressure transmitted by a liquid.

HydraulicsThe use of pressurized liquid to transfer force.

ImpregnatedThe particles of one substance infused into that of another.

Independent front suspensionSuspension system in which each wheel is independently supported by

a spring.

Indirect damageSecondary damage found in the area surrounding the damage which caused it.

InertiaInertia is the resistance of a body to stop doing whatever it is doing.

InertiaProperty of an object by which it continues in its existing state of rest or motion in a straight

line, unless that state is changed by an external force.

InsulationA material which is non-conductive of either heat or electricity.

IntegralA necessary part to complete a whole unit.

InterchangeabilityThe ability to substitute one part for another.

Kerb weightThe weight of an empty vehicle without passengers and luggage.

KevlarA synthetic aramid fibre used as a reinforcement for resins. It is noted for its high impact resistance

and is used in racing car bodywork.

Kinetic energyThe energy of motion.

LaminatesA material composed of a number of layers.

Lap jointA form of joint obtained by overlapping the edges of two pieces of metal. The overlapping

parts must be in the sample plane.

LatexA natural rubber used for making flexible moulds. It is a liquid which solidifies in contact with

air.

Lay-upLayers of glass fibres are laid on top of wet resin and then pressed down into the liquid resin.

Glossary xxvii

Leftward weldingThis is known as forehand welding.

LeversLevers are used to increase the force exerted by pivoting about a point.

Mass productionLarge-scale, high-speed manufacture.

Metal fatigueA metal structural failure, resulting from excessive or repeated stress, finally resulting in

a crack.

MoleculeA minute particle into which a substance can be divided and retain its properties.

MonomerA simple molecule capable of combining with itself, or a compatible similar chemical, to

form a chain (polymer).

MouldingThe resulting shape of a plastics material when it is removed from its mould.

Mould releaseA substance used to coat the mould to prevent sticking of the resin that will be used to

make a part. It facilitates the removal of that part from the mould.

Near sideThe left-hand side of the vehicle as viewed from the driver’s seat.

Neutral flameA balanced flame, indicating perfect combustion of both oxygen and acetylene gases.

Non-ferrous metalsMetals which do not contain any ferrite or iron.

NormalizingHeating to a high temperature to produce a refinement of the grain structure of a metal or

alloy.

Off sideThe right-hand side of a vehicle as viewed from the driver’s seat.

Original finishThe paint applied at the factory by the vehicle manufacturer.

OxidationChemical reaction between oxygen and some other element resulting in oxides.

Oxidizing flameA gas welding flame which has an excess of oxygen when burning.

PaddleA wooden tool shaped for spreading body solder.

Parent metalThe material of a part to be welded.

Pascal’s lawPascal discovered that the pressure in a body is equal in all directions.

PenetrationDepth of fusion or weld penetration.

PickleTo soak metal in an acid solution in order to free the surface of rust or scale.

PillarA vertical support of a body frame.

Pillar faceThe front of a pillar visible when the door is opened.

Pinch weldTwo metal flanges butted together and spot welded along the join of the flat surfaces.

PolyurethaneA versatile material used for adhesives, paints, varnishes, resins and foam materials.

These are often used ion conjunction with polyester-based GRP.

PorosityThe presence of gas pockets or inclusions within a weld.

PowerPower is usually expressed in horse power (HP), that is, the number of horses which would be

needed to do the equivalent amount of work in the same time.

PressureThe amount force per unit area

PrototypeAn original model.

PuddleThe small body of molten metal created by the flame of a welding torch.

Quarter lightThe window directly above the quarter panel.

Quarter panelThe side panel extending from the door to the rear end of the body (including rear

wing).

ReinforcementFiller material added to plastics (resin) in order to strengthen the finished product.

Relative density (RD)Relative density is the relationship which other materials have with this.

ResinResins occur in nature as organic compounds, insoluble in water, e.g. amber, shellac. Synthetic

resins have similar properties and are normally converted to solids by ploymerization.

Return sweepA reverse curve.

SaloonAn enclosed body not having a partition between the front and rear seats.

Scuttle panelThe panel between the bonnet and windscreen.

Self-tapping screwA screw that cuts its own threads into a predrilled hole.

Silicone rubbersUsed, amongst other applications, for sealants and flexible mould compounds. They

are usually cold curing.

SolventA chemical fluid which will dissolve, dilute or liquefy another material.

xxviiiGlossary

SpecificationsInformation provided by the manufacturer on vehicle data in the form of dimensions.

SquabThe rear seat back construction.

Stream liningThe shaping of a vehicle body to minimize air resistance.

SubframeMembers to which the engine and front-end assembly are attached.

SwageA raised form of moulding pressed into a piece of metal in order to stiffen it.

Swage lineA design line on a vehicle body, caused by a crease or step in a panel.

SweatingUniting two or more metal surfaces by the use of heat and soft solder.

SyntheticA substance produced artificially.

TemperatureThe measurement, in degrees, of the intensity of heat.

TemplateA form or pattern made so that other parts can be formed to exactly the same shape.

Tensile strengthThe resistance to breaking which metal offers when subject to a pulling stress.

ThermoplasticPlastic which can be softened by heating, and which still retains its properties after it

has been cooled and hardened. Typical thermoplastics are polythene and PVC.

ThermosettingPlastic which hardens by non-reversible chemical reaction, initiated by heat and/or curing

agents. Once hardened, it cannot be melted down without being destroyed.

ThixotropicGenerally used to describe substances which have a very high viscosity when stable, but

low viscosity when stirred or brushed. ‘Non-drip’ paint is an obvious example; another is gelcoat resin.

TorqueTorque is the turning moment about a point expressed in newton-metres (Nm).

TunnelA raised floor panel section for drivershaft clearance.

TurretAmerican term for roof.

Weld beadOne single run of an electrode welding rod in manual metal arc welding.

Weld depositMetal which has been added to a joint by one of the welding processes.

Wheel alignmentThe adjustment of a vehicle’s wheels so that they are positioned to drive correctly.

Wheel archPanel forming inner housing for rear wheels.

WheelbaseThe distance between the centre lines of the front and rear wheels of a vehicle.

Abbreviations and

symbols

ABS acrylonitrile butadiene styrene

ABS anti-lock braking system

AF across flats (bolt size)

Cd aerodynamic drag coefficient

AC alternating current

A ampere

AFFF aqueous film forming foam (fire fighting)

bar 106 dyn/cm2; 105 N/m2; 0.98682 atm; 14.505 psi

BATNEEC best available techniques not enabling excessive costs

BS British Standard

BSI British Standards Institution

BCF bromochlorodifluoromethane (fire extinguishers)

CO carbon monoxide

CO2 carbon dioxide

C Centigrade (Celsius)

cm centimetre

CAD computer-aided design

CAE computer-aided engineering

CAM computer-aided manufacturing

CIM computer-integrated manufacturing

COSHH Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (Regulations)

cm3 cubic centimetres

in3 cubic inches

deg. or º degree (angle or temperature)

DTI dial test indicator

dia. diameter

DC direct current

dB decibel

ECU Electronic control unit

EPA Environmental Protection Act

EC European Community

F Fahrenheit

ft foot

ft/min feet per minute

xxxAbbreviations and symbols

gal gallon (imperial)

GLS general lighting service (lamp)

GRP glass fibre reinforced plastic

g gram (mass)

HASAWA Health and Safety at Work Act

HSE Health and Safety Executive

HT high tension (electrical)

HVLP high velocity low pressure (spray guns)

in inch

IFS independent front suspension

IR infrared

ID internal diameter

IED Institution of Engineering Designers

IMI Institute of the Motor Industry

ISO International Organization for Standardization

kg Kilogram (mass)

kW kilowatt

LH left-hand

LHD left-hand drive

LHThd left-hand thread

l litre

LT Low tension

lumen light energy radiated per second per unit solid angle by a uniform point source of l candela

intensity

lux unit of illumination equal to l lumen/m2

max. maximum

MAG metal active gas (welding)

MIG metal inert gas (welding)

m metre

mm millimetre

min. minimum

_ minus (of tolerance)

_ minute (of angle)

(_) negative (electrical)

Nm newton metre

dB(A) noise level at the ear

Lep,d noise exposure level, personal (daily)

Lep,w noise exposure level, personal (weekly)

no. Number

ozf ounce (force)

oz ounce (mass)

OD outside diameter

Abbreviations and symbols xxxi

part no. part number

% percentage

PPE Personal Protection Equipment (Regulations)

pt pint (imperial)

_ plus (tolerance)

_ plus or minus

PVA polyvinyl acetate

PVC polyvinyl chloride

_ positive (electrical)

lbf pound force

lb pound (mass)

lbf ft pound force foot (torque)

lbf/in2 pound force per square inch

r radius

ref. reference

rev/min revolutions per minute

RH right-hand

RHD right-hand drive

_ second (angle)

SAE Society of Automobile Engineers

cm2 square centimetres

in2 square inches

std standard

TIG tungsten inert gas (welding)

VIN vehicle identification number

VOCs volatile organic compounds

V volt

This Page is Intentionally Left Blank

The history,

development and

construction of the

car body

1.1 Development of the motor car body

Brief history

The first motor car bodies and chassis frames, made

between 1896 and 1910, were similar in design to

horse-drawn carriages and, like the carriages, were

made almost entirely of wood.

The frames were generally made from heavy ash,

and the joints were reinforced by wrought iron brackets

which were individually fitted. The panels were

either cedar or Honduras mahogany about 9.5 mm

thick, glued, pinned or screwed to the framework.

The tops, on cars which had them, were of rubberized

canvas or other fabrics. Some bodies were built

with closed cabs, and the tops were held in place by

strips of wood bent to form a solid frame. About

1921 the Weymann construction was introduced, in

which the floor structure carried all the weight of the

seating, and the body shell, which was of very light

construction, was attached to the floor unit. Each

joint in the shell and between the shell and the floor

was made by a pair of steel plates, one on each side

of the joint and bolted through both pieces of timber,

leaving a slight gap between the two pieces. The

panelling was of fabric, first canvas, then a layer of

wadding calico and finally a covering of leather

cloth. This form of construction allowed flexibility in

the framing and made a very light and quiet body

frame, but the outer covering had a very short life.

As the demand for vehicles increased it became

necessary to find a quicker method of production.

Up to that time steel had been shaped by hand, but

it was known that metal in large sheets could

be shaped using simple die tools in presses, and

machine presses were introduced to the steel industry

to form steel sheets into body panels. Initially the

sheets were not formed into complex shapes or

contours, and the first bodies were very square and

angular with few curves. The frame and inner construction

was still for the most part made of wood,

as shown in Figure 1.1. About 1923 the first

attempts were made to build all-steel bodies, but

these were not satisfactory as the design principles

used were similar to those which had been adopted

for the timber-framed body. The real beginning of

the all-steel body shell came in 1927, when presses

became capable of producing a greater number of

panels and in more complex shapes; this was the

dawn of the mass production era. During the 1930s

most of the large companies who manufactured

motor vehicles adopted the use of metal for the

complete construction of the body shell, and motor

cars began to be produced in even greater quantities.

Owing to the ever-increasing demand for private

transport, competition increased between rival

firms, and in consequence their body engineers

began to incorporate features which added to the

comfort of the driver and passenger. This brought

about the development of the closed cars or

saloons as we know them today. The gradual

development of the shape of the motor car body

can be clearly seen in Figure 1.2, which shows a

2Repair of Vehicle Bodies

selection of Austin vehicles from 1909 to 1992.

That is, from Edwardian to modern times.

The inner construction of the head roof of these

saloons was concealed by a headlining. Up to and

including the immediate post-war years, this headlining

was made from a woollen fabric stitched

together and tacked into position on wooden

frames. However, the more recently developed

plastic and vinyl materials were found to be more

suitable than fabric, being cheaper and easier to

clean and fit. They are fitted by stretching over

self-tensioning frames which are clipped into position

for easy removal, or alternatively the headlining

is fastened into position with adhesives.

Comfort improved tremendously with the use of

latex foam rubber together with coil springs in the

seating, instead of the original plain springing. The

general interior finish has also been improved by

the introduction of door trim pads, fully trimmed

dash panels and a floor covering of either removable

rubber or carpeting.

Then came the general use of celluloid for windows

instead of side curtains, and next a raising

and lowering mechanism for the windows.

Nowadays the windscreen and door glasses are

made of laminated and/or toughened safety glass.

The window mechanism in use today did not

begin to develop until well into the 1920s.

Mudguards, which began as wooden or leather

protections against splattered mud, grew into wide

splayed deflectors in the early part of the twentieth

century and then gradually receded into the body

work, becoming gracefully moulded into the

streamlining of the modern motor car and taking

the name of wings. Carriage steps retained on earlier

models gave place to running boards which in

their turn disappeared altogether.

Steering between 1890 and 1906 was operated

by a tiller (Figure 1.3). This was followed by the

steering wheel which is in current use. The position

of the gear lever made an early change from

the floor to the steering column, only to return to

some convenient place on the floor.

Some of the first vehicles, or horseless carriages

as they were known, carried no lights at all; then

carriage candle lamps made their appearance. Later

came oil lamps, acetylene lamps and finally the

electric lighting system, first fitted as a luxury

extra and ultimately becoming standard and finally

obligatory equipment which must conform with

legislation of the day.

When windscreens were first introduced such

accessories as windscreen wipers and washers were

unknown. Then came the single hand-operated

wiper, followed by the suction wiper and finally

electrically driven wipers.

The design of the wheels was at first dictated by

fashion. It was considered necessary for the rear

wheels to be larger than the front, a legacy from the

elegant horse-drawn carriages. Wooden spokes and

iron tyres were the first wheels to appear, and with

both rear and front wheels of the same dimensions.

Then came the wooden-spoked artillery wheel with

pneumatic tyre (Figure 1.4). The artillery wheel

gave way to the wire-spoked wheel, and this in

turn to the modern disc wheel with tubeless tyres.

Great strides have been made in the evolution

of the motor car since 1770, when Cugnot’s steam

wagon travelled at 3 mile/h (4.8 km/h), to the modern

Figure 1.1Timber constructed bodies: (a) De Dion

Works body shop, Finchley, c. 1923 (b) Gordon

England Ltd, 1922 (National Motor Museum, Beaulieu)

The history, development and construction of the car body 3

1909 The first Baby Austin

1922 Austin Tourer

1932 Austin Saloon

1946 Austin 16

Figure 1.2Development of the Austin car body 1909 to 1992, from Edwardian to modern construction methods

4Repair of Vehicle Bodies

1948 Austin A–70

1952 Austin Seven

1959 Austin Princess

1960 Austin Mini

Figure 1.2(continued)

The history, development and construction of the car body 5

1963 Austin 1100

1964 Austin 1800

1973 Austin Allegro

1970 Austin Maxi 1800

Figure 1.2(continued)

6Repair of Vehicle Bodies

1975 Austin Princess

1976 Austin Rover SDI

1980 Austin Metro

1983 Austin Maestro

Figure 1.2(continued)

The history, development and construction of the car body 7

1984 Austin Montego

1987 Austin Rover Sterling

1986 Austin Rover 200

1988 Rover 820 Fastback

1989 Mini Flame

Figure 1.2(continued)

8Repair of Vehicle Bodies

vehicle which can carry driver and passengers in

silence, comfort and safety at speeds which at one

time were thought to be beyond human endurance;

indeed, special vehicles on prepared tracks are now

approaching the speed of sound.

It must be borne in mind that the speed of the vehicle

is governed by (a) the type of power unit, (b) its

stability and manoeuvring capabilities and (c) its

shape, which is perhaps at present one of the most

important features in high-speed travel. Whatever the

mechanical future of the car, we may rest assured

that the shape of the motor car body will continue to

change as technical progress is made (Figure 1.5).

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