Treatment of Loneliness
The alternative to viewing loneliness and the fear of being alone as a defect or as an unalterable personality characteristic is to recognize that loneliness is something that can be changed. It is also important to know that loneliness and the fear of being alone are common experiences. According to a recent national survey, 25% of all adults experience painful loneliness at least every few weeks, and the incidence among adolescents and college students is even higher. Loneliness is neither a permanent state nor "bad" in itself. Instead it should be viewed more accurately as a signal or indicator of important needs that are going unmet.
The first step is to admit that you have a problem with being alone and that you would like to feel and behave differently. Remember, we all have strengths and weakness and hiding your weaknesses takes up more energy than it does to work to overcome them or learn to live with them.
The most frequently used form of therapy is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), reality therapy and behavioral therapy. Working with an experienced psychologist, therapist, or counselor you can learn new behavioral approaches, new relationship and communication skills, and specific techniques to help you deal with anxiety and depression.
Relaxation and stress relief techniques are frequently an accompaniment to other therapeutic approaches. Relaxation techniques may include things like specific ways of breathing, muscle relaxation training, guided mental imagery, or soothing self-talk. Associating these relaxation techniques with being alone can help you deal with, and overcome, feelings of loneliness, depression and anxiety.
Medication can also be used. While they do not "cure" the fears of being alone, they can temporarily suppress the symptoms through chemical interaction.
Another treatment for both loneliness and depression, especially in the elderly, is pet therapy, or animal-assisted therapy as it is more formally known. Some studies and surveys, as well as anecdotal evidence provided by volunteer and community organizations, indicate that the presence of animal companions can ease feelings of depression and loneliness. According to the Centers for Disease Control, there are a number of health benefits associated with pet ownership.
http://www.psychologistanywhereanytime.com/relationships_psychologist/psychologist_loneliness.htm
Psychotherapy
By Leonard Holmes
Updated November 25, 2003
The terms counseling and psychotherapy sometimes cause confusion - for both professionals and lay people. What are they? What's the difference?
Steadman's Medical Dictionary defines psychotherapy as:
treatment of emotional, behavioral, personality, and psychiatric disorders based primarily upon verbal or nonverbal communication with the patient, in contrast to treatments utilizing chemical and physical measures and it defines counseling as:
A professional relationship and activity in which one person endeavors to help another to understand and to solve his or her adjustment problems; the giving of advice, opinion, and instruction to direct the judgment or conduct of another.Stedman's Electronic Medical Dictionary, 1994
These definitions help draw a clear distinction, but they don't really capture the essence of either procedure, psychotherapy in particular.
Lewis Wolberg, in his massive work The Technique of Psychotherapy, provides us with this definition:
Psychotherapy is the treatment, by psychological means, of problems of an emotional nature in which a trained person deliberately establishes a professional relationship with the patient with the object of (1) removing, modifying, or retarding existing symptoms, (2) mediating disturbed patterns of behavior, and (3) promoting positive personality growth and development. (Wolberg, 1977)
The first recorded psychotherapy patient is referred to as "Anna O." She was treated by Josef Breuer through a "talking cure" in the early 1880s. Breuer told his friend Sigmund Freud about the technique, and he later adopted it with some of his own patients.
Freudian psychoanalysis has been criticized by many because of its tendency to create long-term dependent relationships. Psychoanalysis attempts to "get to the root of the problem" by analyzing the "transference" relationship which develops between the therapist and patient. This is a lengthy process, typically taking several years. There are some recent models of psychoanalytically-oriented brief therapy. The focus in these therapies is narrower, and the work focuses more on the problem at hand than on the root of the problem.
Other schools of psychotherapy have a different focus. Behavior therapy focuses on changing behavior. B. F. Skinner is sometimes seen as the father of behaviorism. Behavior modification focuses on setting up rewards and punishments in order to shape someone's behavior. Behavioral treatment can involve relaxation training, desensitization of phobias and biofeedback.
Cognitive therapy seeks to help people change how they think about things. Albert Ellis's Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy is an example of this. Ellis considers strong emotions to result from an interaction between events in the environment and beliefs and expectations which we have. Some of these beliefs are too strong or rigid (such as the belief "Everyone should like me."). The patient or client learns to modify the belief so that it is less extreme and less likely to get in the way (such as "I like for people to like me, but I realize that not everyone is going to.").
Much psychotherapy is not limited to a particular school. Many therapists are trained in several different approaches. They then take techniques from these approaches which fit their own style and personality. It has been difficult to research the effectiveness of psychotherapy, since the term can refer to so many different activities. It is often used along with medications to treat mental disorders.
There are many other ways to look at psychotherapy. Psychotherapy consists of two (or more) people sitting in a room talking. At least one of these people is trained in helping people change. At least one has something about their life that they want to change.
References:
Stedman's Electronic Medical Dictionary, New York:Williams and Wilkins Co, 1994. (based on Stedman's Medical Dictionary, 1990)
Wolberg, Lewis R. (1977) The Technique of Psychotherapy. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1977, p3, http://mentalhealth.about.com/cs/psychotherapy/a/psychotherapy.htm
PART III.
GLOSSARY
PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE
1. Anamnesis, n. (анамнез) — recollection, especially of a supposed previous existence; a patient’s account of their medical history.
2. Association, n. (ассоциация) — a mental connection between things.
3. Attention, n. (внимание) — notice taken of someone or something; the regarding of someone or something as interesting or important; the mental faculty of considering or taking notice of someone or something.
4. Behaviour, n. (поведение) — the way in which one acts or conducts oneself, especially towards others; the way in which an animal or person behaves in response to a particular situation or stimulus.
5. Case study, n. (психологическое исследование конкретного объекта, случая) — a process or record of research into the development of a particular person, group, or situation over a period of time; a particular instance of something used or analysed in order to illustrate a thesis or principle.
6. Character, n. (характер) — the particular combination of qualities in a person or place that makes them different from others.
7. Classical conditioning, n. (выработка условного рефлекса по методу Павлова) — a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired: a response which is at first elicited by the second stimulus is eventually elicited by the first stimulus alone.
8. Cognition, n. (когнитивная способность, познание) — the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.
9. Consciousness, n. (сознание) — the state of being aware of and responsive to one’s surroundings; a person’s awareness or perception of something; the fact of awareness by the mind of itself and the world.
10. Distress, n. (дистресс, душевное страдание, несчастье) — extreme anxiety, sorrow, or pain.
11. Emotion, n. (эмоции) — a strong feeling deriving from one’s circumstances, mood, or relationships with others.
12. Environment, n. (окружение, окружающая среда) — the surroundings or conditions in which a person, animal, or plant lives or operates; the setting or conditions in which a particular activity is carried on.
13. Free association, n. (свободные ассоциации) — the mental process by which one word or image may spontaneously suggest another without any necessary logical connection; a psychoanalytic technique for investigation of the unconscious mind, in which a relaxed subject reports all passing thoughts without reservation.
14. Gestalt, n. (гештальт) — an organized whole that is perceived as more than the sum of its parts.
15. Hysteria, n. (истерия) — exaggerated or uncontrollable emotion or excitement; an old-fashioned term for a psychological disorder characterized by conversion of psychological stress into physical symptoms (somatization) or a change in self-awareness.
16. Imagination, n. (воображение) — the faculty or action of forming new ideas, or images or concepts of external objects not present to the senses.
17. Interaction, n. (взаимодействие) — reciprocal action or influence.
18. Interpretation, n. (интерпретация) — the action of explaining the meaning of something; an explanation or way of explaining.
19. Interview, n. (интервью) — a meeting of people face to face, especially for consultation.
20. Introspection, n. (интроспекция, самонаблюдение) — the examination or observation of one’s own mental and emotional processes.
21. Longitudinal study, n. (лонгитюдное исследование) — a correlational research study that involves repeated observations of the same variables over long periods of time — often many decades.
22. Memory, n. (память) — the ability to remember information, experiences and people; process of reproducing or recalling what has been learned and retained especially through associative mechanisms.
23. Mental health, n. (психическое здоровье) — a level of psychological well-being, or an absence of a mental disorder.
24. Mental processes (mental functions, cognitive processes), n. (психические процессы, когнитивные функции) — such functions or processes as perception, introspection, memory, creativity, imagination, conception, belief, reasoning, volition, and emotion—in other words, all the different things that we can do with our minds.
25. Mind, n. (разум, умственные способности) — the element of a person that enables them to be aware of the world and their experiences, to think, and to feel; the faculty of consciousness and thought; a person’s ability to think and reason; the intellect.
26. Motivation, n. (мотивация) — a reason or reasons for acting or behaving in a particular way.
27. Neurosis, n. (невроз) — a relatively mild mental illness that is not caused by organic disease, involving symptoms of stress (depression, anxiety, obsessive behaviour, hypochondria) but not a radical loss of touch with reality.
28. Perception, n. (восприятие) — the ability to see, hear, or become aware of something through the senses; awareness of something through the senses; the neurophysiological processes, including memory, by which an organism becomes aware of and interprets external stimuli.
29. Person, n. (личность) — a human being regarded as an individual.
30. Personality, n. (индивидуальность) — the combination of characteristics or qualities that form an individual’s distinctive character
31. Phenomenology, n. (феноменология) — the science of phenomena as distinct from that of the nature of being; an approach that concentrates on the study of consciousness and the objects of direct experience.
32. Prospective, adj. (предполагаемый, ожидаемый) — expected or expecting to be the specified thing in the future.
33. Psychogenesis, n. (психогенез) — the psychological cause to which a mental illness or behavioural disturbance may be attributed (as distinct from a physical cause).
34. Psychologist, n. (психолог) — an expert or specialist in psychology.
35. Psychology, n. (психология) — the scientific study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behaviour, or the influence of a particular person's character on their behaviour.
36. Psychosis, n. (психоз) — a severe mental disorder in which thought and emotions are so impaired that contact is lost with external reality.
37. Psychotherapy, n. (психотерапия) — the treatment of mental disorder by psychological rather than medical means.
38. Reasoning, n. (рассуждение, умозаключение) — the action of thinking about something in a logical, sensible way.
39. Reinforcement, n. (подкрепление) — the action or process of reinforcing or strengthening; the process of encouraging or establishing a belief or pattern of behaviour.
40. Relationship, n. (отношения) — the way in which two or more people or things are connected, or the state of being connected; the way in which two or more people or groups regard and behave towards each other; an emotional and sexual association between two people.
41. Repression, n. (подавление) — the restraint, prevention, or inhibition of a feeling, quality, etc.; the action or process of suppressing a thought or desire in oneself so that it remains unconscious.
42. Retrospective, adj. (ретроспективный, относящийся к прошлому) — looking back on or dealing with past events or situations.
43. Self, n. (личность, сущность) — a person’s essential being that distinguishes them from others, especially considered as the object of introspection or reflexive action; one’s particular nature or personality; the qualities that make one individual or unique; one’s own interests or pleasure.
44. Self-actualization, n. (самоактуализация) — the realization or fulfilment of one’s talents and potentialities, especially considered as a drive or need present in everyone.
45. Self-awareness, n. (самосознание) — conscious knowledge of one’s own character, feelings, motives, and desires.
46. Self-identity, n. (самоидентификация) — the recognition of one’s potential and qualities as an individual, especially in relation to social context.
47. Self-report, n. (самоотчет) — provide details about (one’s circumstances, typically one’s medical or psychological condition).
48. Sensation, n. (ощущение) — a physical feeling or perception resulting from something that happens to or comes into contact with the body.
49. Sexuality, n. (сексуальность) — capacity for sexual feelings; a person’s sexual orientation or preference; sexual activity.
50. Society, n. (общество) — the aggregate of people living together in a more or less ordered community.
51. Somatization, n. (соматизация, психосоматика) — the manifestation of psychological distress by the presentation of bodily symptoms.
52. Speech, n. (речь) — the expression of or the ability to express thoughts and feelings by articulate sounds.
53. Stimulus, n. (стимул) — a thing or event that evokes a specific functional reaction in an organ or tissue; a thing that arouses activity or energy in someone or something; a spur or incentive.
54. Temperament, n. (темперамент) — a person’s or animal’s nature, especially as it permanently affects their behaviour.
55. Thinking, n. (мышление) — the process of considering or reasoning about something; a person’s ideas or opinions.
56. Unconsciousness, n. (бессознательное) — the state of being unconscious; the state of being uninformed or unaware.
57. Well-being, n. (благополучие) — the state of being comfortable, healthy, or happy.
BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY
1. Analytical psychology, n. (аналитическая психология) — the psychoanalytical system of psychology developed and practised by Carl Gustav Jung.
2. Applied psychology, n. (прикладная психология) — the use of psychological principles and theories to overcome problems in other areas, such as mental health, business management, education, health, product design, ergonomics, and law.
3. Behaviourism (behavioral psychology), n. (бихевиоризм) — the theory that human and animal behaviour can be explained in terms of conditioning, without appeal to thoughts or feelings, and that psychological disorders are best treated by altering behaviour patterns; treatment involving the practical application of the theory of behaviourism.
4. Biopsychology, n. (биопсихология) — the branch of psychology concerned with its biological and physiological aspects.
5. Clinical psychology, n. (клиническая психология) — the branch of psychology concerned with the assessment and treatment of mental illness and behavioural problems.
6. Cognitive psychology, n. (когнитивная психология) — a branch of psychology investigates internal mental processes, such as problem solving, memory, learning, and language (how people think, perceive, communicate, remember and learn).
7. Depth psychology, n. (глубинная психология) — the study of unconscious mental processes and motives, especially in psychoanalytic theory and practice.
8. Developmental psychology, n. (возрастная психология) — the scientific study of systematic psychological changes that a person experiences over the course of his/her life span.
9. Educational psychology, n. (педагогическая психология) — a branch of psychology that studies children in an educational setting and is concerned with teaching and learning methods, cognitive development, and aptitude assessment.
10. Ego-psychology, n. (эго-психология) — a system of psychoanalytic developmental psychology concerned especially with personality.
11. Evolutionary psychology, n. (эволюционная психология) — an approach in the social and natural sciences that examines psychological traits such as memory, perception, and language from a modern evolutionary perspective.
12. Existentialism, n. (экзистенциализм) — a philosophical theory or approach which emphasizes the existence of the individual person as a free and responsible agent determining their own development through acts of the will.
13. Experimental psychology, n. (экспериментальная психология) — the branch of psychology concerned with the scientific investigation of the responses of individuals to stimuli in controlled situations.
14. Functionalism, n. (функционализм) — the theory that mental states can be sufficiently defined by their cause, their effect on other mental states, and their effect on behaviour.
15. Gestalt psychology, n. (гештальт психология) — a movement in psychology founded in Germany in 1912, seeking to explain perceptions in terms of gestalts rather than by analysing their constituents.
16. Metapsychology, n. (метапсихология, философия психологии) — the study of mental processes and the mind-body relationship, beyond what can be studied experimentally.
17. Neuropsychology, n. (нейропсихология) — the study of the relationship between behaviour, emotion, and cognition on the one hand, and brain function on the other.
18. Occupational psychology, n. (психология профессиональной деятельности) — the study of human behaviour at work, including methods of selecting personnel, improving productivity, and coping with stress.
19. Psychoanalysis, n. (психоанализ) — a system of psychological theory and therapy which aims to treat mental disorders by investigating the interaction of conscious and unconscious elements in the mind and bringing repressed fears and conflicts into the conscious mind by techniques such as dream interpretation and free association.
20. Psychodynamics, n. (психодинамика) — the interrelation of the unconscious and conscious mental and emotional forces that determine personality and motivation; the branch of psychology that deals with psychodynamics.
21. Psychographics, n. (психография) — the study and classification of people according to their attitudes, aspirations, and other psychological criteria, especially in market research.
22. Psychometrics, n. (психометрия) — the science of measuring mental capacities and processes.
23. Psychopathology, n. (психопатология) — the scientific study of mental disorders; features of people’s mental health considered collectively; mental or behavioural disorder.
24. Psychopharmacology, n. (психофармакология) — the branch of psychology concerned with the effects of drugs on the mind and behaviour.
25. Psychophysics, n. (психофизика) — the branch of psychology that deals with the relations between physical stimuli and mental phenomena.
26. Social psychology, n. (социальная психология) — the branch of psychology that deals with social interactions, including their origins and their effects on the individual.
27. Structuralism, n. (структурализм) — a method of interpretation and analysis of aspects of human cognition, behaviour, culture, and experience, which focuses on relationships of contrast between elements in a conceptual system; the doctrine that structure is more important than function. Originating in the structural linguistics of Ferdinand de Saussure, and extended into anthropology by Claude Lévi-Strauss, structuralism was adapted to a wide range of social and cultural studies, especially in the 1960s, by writers such as Roland Barthes, Louis Althusser, and Jacques Lacan.
BRAIN. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
1. Action potential, n. (потенциал действия) — the change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve cell.
2. Afferent nerve, n. (афферентный, чувствительный нерв) — A nerve conveying impulses from the periphery to the central nervous system.
3. Autonomic nervous system, n. (вегетативная нервная система) — the part of the nervous system responsible for control of the bodily functions not consciously directed, such as breathing, the heartbeat, and digestive processes.
4. Axon, n. (аксон) — the long thread-like part of a nerve cell along which impulses are conducted from the cell body to other cells.
5. Blood–brain barrier, n. (гематоэнцефалический барьер) — a semipermeable membrane separating the blood from the cerebrospinal fluid, and constituting a barrier to the passage of cells, particles, and large molecules.
6. Brain stem, n. (ствол мозга) — the central trunk of the mammalian brain, consisting of the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain, and continuing downwards to form the spinal cord.
7. Cell body (soma), n. (тело клетки, сома) — in neurons, the main part of the cell around the nucleus excluding long processes such as axons and dendrites.
8. Central nervous system, n. (центральная нервная система) — the complex of nerve tissues that controls the activities of the body. In vertebrates it comprises the brain and spinal cord.
9. Dendrite, n. (дендрит) — a short branched extension of a nerve cell, along which impulses received from other cells at synapses are transmitted to the cell body.
10. Efferent nerve, n.(эфферентный, двигательный нерв) — a nerve conveying impulses from the central nervous system to the periphery.
11. Endorphin, n. (эндорфин) — any of a group of hormones secreted within the brain and nervous system and having a number of physiological functions. They are peptides which activate the body’s opiate receptors, causing an analgesic effect.
12. GABA, n. (ГАМК, гамма-аминомасляная кислота) — gamma-aminobutyric acid; an amino acid which acts to inhibit the transmission of nerve impulses in the central nervous system.
13. Ganglion, n. (ганглий, нервный узел) — a structure containing a number of nerve cell bodies, typically linked by synapses, and often forming a swelling on a nerve fibre.
14. Glia (glia cell, neuroglia), n. (глия) — the connective tissue of the nervous system, consisting of several different types of cell associated with neurons.
15. Hippocampus, n. (гиппокамп) — the elongated ridges on the floor of each lateral ventricle of the brain, thought to be the centre of emotion, memory, and the autonomic nervous system.
16. Hormone, n. (гормон) — a regulatory substance produced in an organism and transported in tissue fluids such as blood or sap to stimulate specific cells or tissues into action.
17. Hypothalamus, n. (гипоталамус) — a region of the forebrain below the thalamus which coordinates both the autonomic nervous system and the activity of the pituitary, controlling body temperature, thirst, hunger, and other homeostatic systems, and involved in sleep and emotional activity.
18. Interneuron (interneurone), n. (промежуточный нейрон) — a neuron which transmits impulses between other neurons, especially as part of a reflex arc.
19. Limbic system, n. (лимбическая система) — a complex system of nerves and networks in the brain, involving several areas near the edge of the cortex concerned with instinct and mood. It controls the basic emotions (fear, pleasure, anger) and drives (hunger, sex, dominance, care of offspring).
20. Melatonin, n. (мелатонин) — a hormone secreted by the pineal gland which inhibits melanin formation and is thought to be concerned with regulating the reproductive cycle.
21. Motor neuron, n. (мотонейрон, двигательный нейрон) — a nerve cell forming part of a pathway along which impulses pass from the brain or spinal cord to a muscle or gland.
22. Myelin, n. (миелин) — a mixture of proteins and phospholipids forming a whitish insulating sheath around many nerve fibres, which increases the speed at which impulses are conducted.
23. Nerve fibre, n. (нервное волокно) — the axon of a neuron. A nerve is formed of a bundle of many such fibres, with their sheaths.
24. Nerve impulse, n. (нервный импульс) — a signal transmitted along a nerve fibre. It consists of a wave of electrical depolarization that reverses the potential difference across the nerve cell membranes.
25. Nervous system, n. (нервная система) — the network of nerve cells and fibres which transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body.
26. Neuron, n. (нейрон) — a specialized cell transmitting nerve impulses; a nerve cell.
27. Neurotransmitter, n. (нейромедиатор) — a chemical substance which is released at the end of a nerve fibre by the arrival of a nerve impulse and, by diffusing across the synapse or junction, effects the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fibre, a muscle fibre, or some other structure.
28. Parasympathetic, adj. (парасимпатический) — relating to the part of the autonomic nervous system which balances the action of the sympathetic nerves. It consists of nerves arising from the brain and the lower end of the spinal cord and supplying the internal organs, blood vessels, and glands.
29. Peripheral nervous system, n. (периферическая нервная система) — the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord.
30. Receptor, n. (рецептор) — an organ or cell able to respond to light, heat, or other external stimulus and transmit a signal to a sensory nerve; a region of tissue, or a molecule in a cell membrane, which responds specifically to a particular neurotransmitter, hormone, antigen, or other substance.
31. Reflex, n. (рефлекс) — an action that is performed without conscious thought as a response to a stimulus.
32. Reflex arc, n. (рефлекторная дуга) — the nerve pathway involved in a reflex action, including at its simplest a sensory nerve and a motor nerve with a synapse between.
33. Resting potential, n. (потенциал покоя) — the electrical potential of a neuron or other excitable cell relative to its surroundings when not stimulated or involved in passage of an impulse.
34. Reticular formation (reticular activating system), n. (ретикулярная формация) — a diffuse network of nerve pathways in the brainstem connecting the spinal cord, cerebrum, and cerebellum, and mediating the overall level of consciousness.
35. Reuptake, n. (обратный захват) — the absorption by a presynaptic nerve ending of a neurotransmitter that it has secreted.
36. Sensory neuron, n. (афферентный нейрон, сенсорный нейрон, чувствительный нейрон) — a nerve cell that receives messages from the environment or outer part of the body and carries them to the brain or spinal cord/
37. Serotonin, n. (серотонин) — a compound present in blood platelets and serum, which constricts the blood vessels and acts as a neurotransmitter; a chemical in the body that helps carry messages from the brain and is believed to make you feel happy.
38. Spinal cord, n. (спинной мозг) — the cylindrical bundle of nerve fibres and associated tissue which is enclosed in the spine and connects nearly all parts of the body to the brain, with which it forms the central nervous system.
39. Sympathetic, adj. (симпатический) — relating to or denoting the part of the autonomic nervous system consisting of nerves arising from ganglia near the middle part of the spinal cord, supplying the internal organs, blood vessels, and glands, and balancing the action of the parasympathetic nerves.
40. Synapse, n. (синапс) — a junction between two nerve cells, consisting of a minute gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a neurotransmitter.
41. Association, n. (ассоциация) — a mental connection between things.
42. Biofeedback, n. (биологическая обратная связь) — a method by which a person learns to control their heart rate or other physical or mental processes by using information from recordings of those processes
43. Brain, n. (мозг) — an organ of soft nervous tissue contained in the skull of vertebrates, functioning as the coordinating centre of sensation and intellectual and nervous activity.
44. Cerebellum, n. (мозжечок) — the part of the brain at the back of the skull in vertebrates, which coordinates and regulates muscular activity.
45. Cerebrum, n. (головной мозг) — the principal and most anterior part of the brain in vertebrates, located in the front area of the skull and consisting of two hemispheres, left and right, separated by a fissure. It is responsible for the integration of complex sensory and neural functions and the initiation and coordination of voluntary activity in the body.
46. Cognition, n. (когнитивная способность, познание) — the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.
47. Dopamine, n. (дофамин) — a compound present in the body as a neurotransmitter and a precursor of other substances including adrenalin.
48. Electroencephalogram, n. (электроэнцефалограмма) — a test or record of brain activity produced by electroencephalography.
49. Emotion, n. (эмоции) — a strong feeling deriving from one’s circumstances, mood, or relationships with others.
50. Frontal lobe, n. (лобная доля мозга) — each of the paired lobes of the brain lying immediately behind the forehead, including areas concerned with behaviour, learning, personality, and voluntary movement.
51. Grey matter, n. (серое вещество) — the darker tissue of the brain and spinal cord, consisting mainly of nerve cell bodies and branching dendrites.
52. Hemisphere (cerebral hemisphere), n. (полушария головного мозга) — each of the two parts of the cerebrum (left and right) in the brain of a vertebrate.
53. Imagination, n. (воображение) — the faculty or action of forming new ideas, or images or concepts of external objects not present to the senses.
54. Left brain, n. (левое полушарие) — the left-hand side of the human brain, which is believed to be associated with linear and analytical thought.
55. Medulla oblongata, n. (продолговатый мозг) — the continuation of the spinal cord within the skull, forming the lowest part of the brainstem and containing control centres for the heart and lungs.
56. Memory, n. (память) — the ability to remember information, experiences and people; process of reproducing or recalling what has been learned and retained especially through associative mechanisms.
57. Motor cortex, n. (двигательная зона коры головного мозга) — the part of the cerebral cortex in the brain in which originate the nerve impulses that initiate voluntary muscular activity.
58. Neuropsychology, n. (нейропсихология) — the study of the relationship between behaviour, emotion, and cognition on the one hand, and brain function on the other.
59. Occipital lobe, n. (затылочная доля головного мозга) — the rearmost lobe in each cerebral hemisphere of the brain.
60. Parietal lobe, n. (теменная доля головного мозга) — either of the paired lobes of the brain at the top of the head, including areas concerned with the reception and correlation of sensory information.
61. Perception, n. (восприятие) — the ability to see, hear, or become aware of something through the senses; awareness of something through the senses; the neurophysiological processes, including memory, by which an organism becomes aware of and interprets external stimuli.
62. Plasticity, n. (пластичность, приспособляемость) — the capacity of the brain to change its structure and function within certain limits; plasticity underlies brain functions such as learning and allows the brain to generate normal, healthy responses to long-lasting environmental changes.
63. Reasoning, n. (рассуждение, умозаключение) — the action of thinking about something in a logical, sensible way.
64. Right brain, n. (правое полушарие) — the right-hand side of the human brain, which is believed to be associated with creative thought and the emotions.
65. Sensation, n. (ощущение) — a physical feeling or perception resulting from something that happens to or comes into contact with the body.
66. Speech, n. (речь) — the expression of or the ability to express thoughts and feelings by articulate sounds.
67. Temporal lobe, n. (височная доля головного мозга) — each of the paired lobes of the brain lying beneath the temples, including areas concerned with the understanding of speech.
68. Thalamus, n. (таламус) — either of two masses of grey matter lying between the cerebral hemispheres on either side of the third ventricle, relaying sensory information and acting as a centre for pain perception.
69. Thinking, n. (мышление) — the process of considering or reasoning about something; a person’s ideas or opinions.
70. White matter, n. (белое вещество) — the paler tissue of the brain and spinal cord, consisting mainly of nerve fibres with their myelin sheaths.
LOVE. FAMILY
1. Affection n (привязанность, любовь) a warm gentle feeling of caring for or loving sb/sth; fondness
2. Ancestor n (предок) any of the people from whom sb is descended
3. Ascribe v (приписывать) to consider or declare sth to be caused by, written by or belonging to sb/sth
4. Attachment n (привязанность, прикрепление) the action of attaching or the fact of being attached; a thing that is or can be attached; affection
5. Backbone n (главная опора) the chief support of a system or an organization
6. Behaviour n (поведение) the way sb. behaves, esp. towards other people; one’s attitude and manners
7. Birth n (рождение) the coming of young from out of the mother’s body; the process of being born
8. Blended family (смешанная семья) is made up of the natural mother or father, a stepmother or stepfather and children of one or both of the parents
9. Blood n (происхождение) family or race
10. Brother n (брат) a man or boy having the same parents as another person
11. Children n pl (дети) young persons from birth to the age of full physical development; boys or girls
12. Credulous adj (легковерный) too ready to believe things
13. Daughter n (дочь) one’s female child
14. Divorce n (развод) the legal ending of a marriage
15. Ethnic adj (этнический) of or involving a nation, race or tribe that has a common cultural tradition
16. Family n (семья) a group consisting of one or two parents and their children
17. Feeling n (чувство) a thing that is felt through the mind or the senses
18. Financial commitment (финансовое обязательство) commitment concerning money and finance
19. Friendship n (дружба) the feeling or relationship that friends have; the state of being friends
20. Generation n (поколение) all people born at about the same time
21. Grandparent n (бабушка, дедушка) the mother or father of either of one’s parents
22. Gullible adj (легковерный) willing to believe anything or anyone; easily deceived
23. Husband n (муж) a man to whom a woman is married
24. Infatuation n (сильное увлечение) the state of being infatuated; a foolish passion
25. Inheritance n (наследственность) the action of inheriting sth from sb; a thing that is inherited
26. Intercourse n (общение) dealings with people, nations, etc.
27. Life cycle (expectancy) (жизненный цикл) the number of years that a person is likely to live; the length of time that sth is likely to exist or function
28. Love n (любовь) a strong feeling of deep affection for sb/sth; sexual affection or passion
29. Marriage n (брак) a formal, usu legally recognized, agreement between a man and a woman making them husband and wife
30. Marry v (выходить замуж, жениться) to take sb as a husband or wife
31. Maturation n (зрелость) the process of becoming or being made mature
32. Mother-in-law n (свекровь) the mother of a wife or husband
33. Obedient adj (послушный) doing what one is told to do; willing to obey
34. Parent (родитель) a father or a mother
35. Peer group (равный, ровня) a group of people of approximately the same age or status
36. Preschooler n (дошкольник) a child young enough to go to school
37. Protect v (защищать) to keep sb/sth safe from harm, injury, etc.
38. Race n (раса, род) any of the groups into which humans can be divided according to their physical characteristics, eg colour of skin, colour and type of hair, shape of eyes and nose; a group of people who have the same culture, history, language, etc.
39. Rearing n (воспитание) the process of caring for young children or animals, etc. until they are fully grown
40. Relationship n (родство) links, contacts or dealing between people, groups or countries; the state of being related by birth or marriage
41. Religion n (религия) belief in the existence of a god or gods, esp the belief that they created the universe and gave human beings a spiritual nature which continues to exist after the death of the body
42. Reproduction n (репродукция, воспроизведение) the action or process of reproducing sth or being reproduced; the process of producing young
43. Responsibility n (ответственность) the state or fact of being responsible; a duty for which a person is responsible
44. Retirement n (отставка) the event of retiring or state of having retired from work
45. Security n (безопасность) freedom or protection from danger or worry; measures taken to guarantee the safety of a country, person, thing of value, etc.
46. Schoolchildren pl (школьники) children attending school
47. Siblings pl (дети в одной семье) each of two or more people with the same parents; a brother or sister
48. Single-parent family (семья с одним родителем) is a household in which only one parent lives with a child or children
49. Socialization n (социализация) the process of becoming socialized
50. Social class (социальный класс) of or in society; of or concerning rank and position within society
51. Social function (социальная функция) of or in society; a special activity or a purpose of a person
52. Society n (общество) a system in which people live together in organized communities; people in general; a community of people living in a particular country or region and having shared customs, laws, organizations, etc.
53. Son n (сын) a male child of a parent
54. Spouse n (супруг, супруга) a husband or wife
55. Stepmother n (мачеха) the woman whom one’s father has married after one’s father and mother have divorced or one’s mother has died
56. Stepfather n (отчим) the man whom one’s mother has married after one’s mother and father have divorced or one’s father has died
57. Support n (поддержка) help or encouragement given to sb/sth
58. Teenager n (подросток) a person between 13 and 19 years old
59. Toddler n (ребенок до двух лет) a child who has only recently learnt to walk
60. Wife n (жена) a married woman
STRESS
1. Aggression n (агрессия) violent or hostile feelings or behaviour
2. Alarm n (тревога) fear or anxiety that is felt when danger or bad news is expected
3. Ambitious adj (амбициозный, честолюбивый) actively seeking success, wealth, status, etc.; demanding a lot of effort, money, etc to succeed
4. Anger n (гнев) a strong feeling of annoyance and hostility
5. Anxiety n (беспокойство, тревога) a nervous feeling caused by fear that sth bad is going to happened
6. Approach-approach conflict (конфликт типа приближение-приближение) the situation in which the individual must choose between two attractive alternatives
7. Avoidance-avoidance conflict (конфликт типа избежание-избежание) the situation in which the individual must choose between two unattractive alternatives
8. Biofeedback n (биологическая обратная связь) a training technique in which various bodily functions, such as heart rate, skin temperature, muscle tension, and brain activity are monitored so that people can learn to control them voluntarily so as to improve their health and physical performance
9. Conflict n (конфликт) a serious disagreement; an argument; a struggle; a fight; a serious difference of opinions, wishes, etc
10. Consciousness n (сознание) the state of being conscious
11. Cope with v (справляться) to deal successfully with sth difficult
12. Culture n (культура) the customs, arts, social institutions, etc of a particular group or nation
13. Death n (смерть) an act of dying or being killed; the end of life; the state of being dead
14. Denial n (отрицание, отказ) the statement that sth is not true; a refusal to give or allow sth that sb has a right to expect
15. Depression n (депрессия) the state of being depressed
16. Disappointment n (разочарование, досада) the state of being disappointed
17. Disease n (болезнь) illness of the body, of the mind, caused by infection or internal disorder
18. Distress n (утомление, горе, стресс) great pain, sorrow, suffering, etc; negative stress
19. Disturbance n (нарушение покоя) the action of disturbing sb/sth or the process of being disturbed
20. Eustress n (положительный стресс, стресс как положительная сила, которая делает организм готовым к оптимальному режиму работы) positive stress
21. Exhaustion n (истощение, изнурение) the state of being extremely tired; total loss of strength
22. Effect n (следствие) result
23. Fantasy n (фантазия, воображение) imagination; an idea that is wild or not realistic
24. Fear n (страх) an unpleasant feeling caused by the possibility of danger, pain, a threat, etc
25. Feel v (чувствовать) to explore or perceive sth by touching it or by holding it in the hands; to be aware of or experience sth physical or emotional; to have the sensation of sth
26. Frustration n (расстройство) the feeling of being frustrated; a disappointment
27. Harmful adj (вредный) causing harm
28. Heal v (излечивать, исцелять, заживать) to become or make sth healthy again
29. Health n (здоровье) the state of being well and free from illness in body or mind
30. Holistic adj (холистический) having regard to the whole of sth rather than just to parts of it; emphasizing the importance of the whole and the interdependence of its parts; treating the whole person rather than just the symptoms of a disease
31. Impact n (влияние) influence
32. Measure n (мера) an action taken to achieve a purpose; v (измерять, мерить) to judge the extent or value of sth
33. Meditation n (медитация) the action or practice of meditating
34. Mental adj (умственный, психический) of, in or for the mind; relating to illnesses of the mind and their treatment; mad
35. Perception n (восприятие) the ability to see, hear or understand things; awareness
36. Physical adj (физический) of or for the body
37. Progressive adj (прогрессивный) happening or developing steadily
38. Reaction n (реакция, ответ) a response to a situation, an act, an influence, etc.; a physical response, usu a bad one, to a drug, chemical substance, etc
39. Relaxation n (отдых) rest and enjoyment, an action of relaxing sth
40. Resistance n (сопротивление) the action of using force to opposite sth/sb
41. Response n (ответ) an action or feeling produced in answer to sth; a reaction
42. Retirement n (отставка) the event of retiring or state of having retired from work; the period of one’s life after one has retired
43. Self-defense n (самозащита) the defense of one’s body, actions, rights, etc
44. Social adj (социальный, общественный) concerning the organization of and relations between people and communities; of or in society
45. Source n (источник) a place from which sth comes or is obtained
46. Stressor n (стрессор) a stress-producing event or situation
47. Stress n (стресс) pressure, tension or worry resulting from problems in one’s life
48. Strive v (стараться, стремиться) to try very hard or for a long time to obtain or achieve sth
49. Symptom n (симптом) a change in the body that indicates an illness; a sign of the existence of sth bad
50. Tension n (напряжение) the state of being stretched tight or the extent to which sth is stretched tight; mental, emotional or nervous strain; anxiety
51. Training n (тренировка) the process of preparing sb or being prepared for a sport or job
52. Withdrawal n (уход) departure
53. Worry n (беспокойство, тревога) anxiety
PSYCHOTHERAPY
1. Acupuncture n (акупунктура, иглоукалывание) the method of inserting very thin needdles into the skin as a treatment for various diseases or to relieve pain
2. Apathetic adj (апатичный) showing or feeling apathy
3. Authentic adj (подлинный, достоверный) known to be true or genuine
4. Background n (воспитание, происхождение, окружение) a person’s social class, family status, level of education; a person’s past experience, work, type of education, training, etc
5. Burden n (бремя) a thing or a person that is carried; a load, esp a heavy one; a duty, an obligation, a responsibility, etc that is not wanted or causes trouble
6. Commitment n (обязательство) a thing one has promised to do; the action of committing sb/sth or of being committed.
7. Goal n (цель) the object of one’s efforts; a target
8. Devastation n (опустошение, разорение) great destruction
9. Disturbance n (нарушение покоя) the action of disturbing sb/sth or the process of being disturbed
10. Distraught adj (обезумевший) very sad or upset
11. Equilibrium n (равновесие) the state of being physically balanced; a state of mind in which feelings and emotions are under control
12. Interact v (взаимодействовать) to act or have an affect on each other; to work together or communicate
13. Motivate v (побуждать, побудить) to be the reason for sb’s action; to cause sb to act in a particular way; to stimulate the interest of sb; to cause sb to want to do sth
14. Patient n (пациент) a person who is receiving medical treatment
15. Placebo effect (плацебо эффект) the effect of taking a placebo and feeling better (placebo – a substance that has no physical effect, used when testing new drugs or given to a patient whose illness is imaginary)
16. Procedure n (процедура) a formal or official order or way of doing things; a series of actions that need to be completed in order to achieve sth
17. Psychoanalysis (психоанализ) a method of treating sb’s mental problems or disorders by making them aware of experiences in their early life and tracing the connection between these and their present behaviour or feelings
18. Psychoanalyst n (психоаналитик) a person who practises psychoanalysis
19. Psychiatrist n (психиатр) a specialist in psychiatry
20. Psychotherapy n (психотерапия) the treatment of mental disorders by discussing problems, etc, rather than giving drugs or other medical treatment
21. Reaction n (реакция) a response to a situation, an act, an influence, etc; a physical response, usu a bad one, to a drug, chemical substance, etc
22. Reject v (отвергать) to refuse to accept or consider sth given or offered; to fail to give a person or an animal due attention, care or affection
23. Revelation n (откровение, открытие) the making known of sth that was secret or hidden; a thing which is revealed, esp sth surprising
24. Transference n (передача) the action of transferring sth or the process of being transferred
25. Trouble n (беспокойство, тревога, неприятности) worry, difficulty, danger, etc or a situation causing this
26. Soul n (душа) the spiritual part of a person, believed to exist after death; a person’s moral or emotional nature or sense of identity; strong and good human feeling; emotional, moral and intellectual energy, eg as revealed in works of art
27. Strengthen v (усиливать, укреплять) to become or make sb / sth stronger
28. Subconscious adj (подсознательный) (of or concerning thoughts and feelings in the mind, which one is not fully aware of but which influence one’s actions
29. Unconscious adj (бессознательный) not conscious
30. Vulnerability adj (уязвимый) that can be hurt, harmed or attacked easily, esp because of being small or weak
31. Analysis, n. (анализ) — detailed examination of the elements or structure of something; the process of separating something into its constituent elements.
32. Applied science, n. (прикладная наука) — the application of scientific knowledge transferred into a physical environment.
33. Approach, n. (подход) — start to deal with (a situation or problem) in a certain way.
34. Classification, n. (классификация) — the act or process of dividing things into groups according to their type; a group that something is divided into.
35. Concept, n. (концепция) — an abstract idea; an idea or mental image which corresponds to some distinct entity or class of entities, or to its essential features, or determines the application of a term (especially a predicate), and thus plays a part in the use of reason or language.
36. Correlation, n. (корреляция, взаимосвязь) — a connection between two or more things, often one in which one of them causes or influences the other.
37. Deductive, adj. (дедуктивный) — characterized by or based on the inference of particular instances from a general law.
38. Discovery, n. (открытие) — the process of finding information, a place or an object, especially for the first time, or the thing which is found.
39. Empirical, adj. (эмпирический, основанный на опыте) — based on, concerned with, or verifiable by observation or experience rather than theory or pure logic.
40. Examine, v. (исследовать, изучать, проверять) — inspect (someone or something) thoroughly in order to determine their nature or condition.
41. Experiment, n. (эксперимент) — a scientific procedure undertaken to make a discovery, test a hypothesis, or demonstrate a known fact.
42. Explanation, n. (объяснение) — a statement or account that makes something clear.
43. Hypothesis, n. (гипотеза) — a supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.
44. Inductive, adj. (индуктивный) — characterized by the inference of general laws from particular instances.
45. Investigate, v. (исследовать, изучать, собирать сведения) — carry out a systematic or formal inquiry to discover and examine the facts of (an incident, allegation, etc.) so as to establish the truth; carry out research or study into (a subject or problem, typically one in a scientific or academic field).
46. Knowledge, n. (знание) — facts, information, and skills acquired through experience or education; the theoretical or practical understanding of a subject.
47. Laboratory, n. (лаборатория) — a room or building equipped for scientific experiments, research, or teaching, or for the manufacture of drugs or chemicals.
48. Law, n. (закон) — a statement of fact, deduced from observation, to the effect that a particular natural or scientific phenomenon always occurs if certain conditions are present; a generalization based on a fact or event perceived to be recurrent.
49. Measurement, n. (измерение) — the act or process of measuring; the size, shape, quality, etc. of something, which you discover by measuring it.
50. Natural science, n. (естественные науки) — a branch of science which deals with the physical world, e.g. physics, chemistry, geology, biology; the branch of knowledge which deals with the study of the physical world.
51. Observation, n. (наблюдение) — the action or process of closely observing or monitoring something or someone.
52. Phenomenon, n. (феномен) — a fact or situation that is observed to exist or happen, especially one whose cause or explanation is in question.
53. Prediction (forecast), n. (прогноз) — a statement about the way things will happen in the future, often but not always based on experience or knowledge.
54. Research, n. (исследование) — the systematic investigation into and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new conclusions.
55. Science, n. (наука) — the intellectual and practical activity encompassing the systematic study of the structure and behaviour of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment.
56. Scientific method, n. (научный метод) — a method of procedure that has characterized natural science since the 17th century, consisting in systematic observation, measurement, and experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.
57. Scientific misconduct, n. (научная недостоверность) — action which wilfully compromises the integrity of scientific research, such as plagiarism or the falsification or fabrication of data.
58. Scientist, n. (ученый) — a person who is studying or has expert knowledge of one or more of the natural or physical sciences.
59. Social science, n. (общественные науки) — the scientific study of human society and social relationships; a subject within the field of social science, such as economics or politics.
60. Study, v. (изучать, учиться, заниматься) — devote time and attention to acquiring knowledge on (an academic subject), especially by means of books; investigate and analyse (a subject or situation) in detail; acquire academic knowledge at an educational establishment.
61. Synthesis, n. (синтез) — the combination of components or elements to form a connected whole; the final stage in the process of dialectical reasoning, in which a new idea resolves the conflict between thesis and antithesis.
62. Term, n. (термин) — a word or phrase used to describe a thing or to express a concept, especially in a particular kind of language or branch of study.
63. Test, v. (тестировать,проверять) — take measures to check the quality, performance, or reliability of (something), especially before putting it into widespread use or practice.
64. Theory, n. (теория) — a supposition or a system of ideas intended to explain something, especially one based on general principles independent of the thing to be explained.
65. Thought experiment, n. (мысленный эксперимент) — a mental assessment of the implications of a hypothesis.
66. Validate, v. (подтверждать, обосновывать) — check or prove the validity or accuracy of; demonstrate or support the truth or value of.
ПРИЛОЖЕНИЯ
Приложение 1