I. Страдательный залог (Passive Voice).
Контрольная работа №3
При выполнении данной работы следует обратить внимание на следующие грамматические явления:
IV. Инфинитив.
Инфинитив, или неопределенная форма глагола, относится к неличным формам глагола и сочетает в себе свойства глагола и существительного. Инфинитив отвечает на вопросы “что делать?”, “что сделать?”: to read–читать, to write– писать, to promise – обещать и т.д.
Формальным признаком инфинитива является частица to, которая стоит перед ним. В некоторых случаях to опускается.
Субъектный инфинитивный оборот (Complex Subject).
В конструкции "субъектный инфинитивный оборот" действие, совершаемое подлежащим, выражается инфинитивом. Глагол-сказуемое лишь указывает на отношение к этому действию. Перевод предложения следует начинать со сказуемого (неопределенно-личным оборотом) и, если требуется по смыслу, вводится союз “что”.
| These elements are known to have been foundtwenty years ago. | Известно, что эти элементы были открыты двадцать лет назад. |
Между компонентами сложного подлежащего может стоять сказуемое, выраженное:
а) глаголом в форме страдательного залога: to be said, to be reported, to be known, to be stated, to be supposed, to be considered, to be seen, to be expected, to be believedи др.;
б) глаголом в форме действительного залога: to seem–казаться, to appear, to prove– оказываться, to happen–случайно оказаться;
в) сочетаниями: tobe likely – вероятно, возможно, to be unlikely– маловероятно, to be sure– несомненно, to be certain–безусловно.
| The groupis believed to complete the research next month. | Считают, что группа закончит исследованиев следующем месяце. |
Вариант 1
I. Выберите правильный вариант видовременной формы глагола, перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, указав, в какой видовременной форме находится выбранный вами глагол.
Example: The engineer … to test the device.
a) was asked; b) have been asked; c) are asking; d) has asked.
The engineer was asked to test the device. – Инженера попросили испытать механизм. (Past Simple, Passive Voice)
1. An ever-increasing volume of information … in digital form.
a) are transmitted; b) are been transmitted; c) is transmitted; d) transmits.
2. The digital pulses … perfectly after they become attenuated with distance.
a) can be regenerated; b) can been regenerated; c) could have be regenerated; d) being regenerated.
3. Access to knowledge … far easier recently by computerized indexes of scientific and technical journals.
a) were made; b) has been made; c) are made; d) make.
4. Your watch is not ready yet. It … still … .
a) are … being repaired; b) was … being repaired; c) is … repairing; d) is … being repaired.
VI. Перепишите предложения, подчеркните инфинитив. Переведите предложения на русский язык.
Example: To solve the problem is very important. Решить эту проблему – очень важно.
1. The problems to be solved are of great importance.
2. To make this experiment you should use the new device.
3. They seem to have made a mistake in their measurements.
4. To study this phenomenon requires much knowledge.
VII. Перефразируйте следующие предложения, употребив субъектный инфинитивный оборот. Напишите их и переведите на русский язык.
Example: It is expected that the experiment will be over soon. – The experiment is expected to be over soon. – Предполагают, что эксперимент скоро закончится.
1. It is reported that the research has been carried out successfully.
2. It is said that optical technology is cost-effective and versatile.
3. It was thought that the chemicals convey important information to the brain.
4. It is expected that the new method will appear in future.
Работа над текстом
I. Прочитайте текст используя пояснения к тексту. Выполните упражнения к тексту.
Integrated Circuits (1)
1. Integrated circuits were made possible by experimental discoveries which showed that semiconductor devices could perform the functions of vacuum tubes, and by mid-20th-century technology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. The integration of large numbers of tiny transistors into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of circuits using discrete electronic components. The integrated circuit’s mass production capability, reliability, and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adoption of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors.
2. There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits: cost and performance. Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by photolithography and not constructed a transistor at a time. Performance is high since the components switch quickly and consume little power, because the components are small and close together. Chip areas range from a few square mm to around 250 mm2, with up to 1 million transistors per mm2.
3. Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the microprocessors, which control everything from computers to cellular phones to digital microwave ovens. Digital memory chips are another family of integrated circuits that is crucially important to the modern information society. While the cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high, when spread across typically millions of production units the individual IC cost is minimized. The performance of ICs is high because the small size allows short traces which in turn allows low power logic (such as CMOS) to be used at fast switching speeds.
4. ICs have consistently migrated to smaller feature sizes over the years, allowing more circuitry to be packed on each chip. This increased capacity per unit area can be used to decrease cost and/or increase functionality of Moore’s law. In general, as the feature size shrinks, almost everything improves—the cost per unit and the switching power consumption go down, and the speed goes up.
5. Only a half century after their development was initiated, integrated circuits have become commonly used. Computers, cellular phones, and other digital appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies. That is, modern computing, communications, manufacturing and transport systems, including the Internet, all depend on the existence of integrated circuits. Indeed, many scholars believe that the digital revolution brought about by integrated circuits was one of the most significant occurrences in the history of mankind.
Notes:
| vacuum tubes | электронная лампа |
| discrete | отдельный, дискретный |
| CMOS (complementary metal-oxide semiconductor | комплементарная МОП-структура |
| shrink | сокращаться, уменьшаться (в размерах) |
| photolithography | фотолитография |
| performance | работа, (рабочая) характеристика |
Вариант 2
I. Выберите правильный вариант видовременной формы глагола, перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, указав, в какой видовременной форме находится выбранный вами глагол.
Example: The engineer … to test the device.
a) was asked; b) have been asked; c) are asking; d) has asked.
The engineer was asked to test the device. – Инженера попросили испытать механизм. (Past Simple, Passive Voice)
1. The Internet, a global computer network … to survive a nuclear war in 1969.
a) had being designed; b) are designed; c) was designed; d) designed.
2. If polished metal … a negative charge and then is flooded with ultraviolet radiation, it steadily loses the charge.
a) are given; b) is given; c) will give; d) are been give.
3. Advanced phones with keyboards and small screens … to access the Internet and send and receive e-mail.
a) have already being developed; b) have already been developed; c) are already developing; d) have already developed.
4. The working principles of electronics … by tracing the history of radio tubes and photoelectric cells.
a) can been demonstrate; b) could demonstrate; c) can be demonstrating; d) can be demonstrated.
Работа над текстом
Integrated Circuits (2)
1. A monolithic integrated circuit (also known as IC, microchip, silicon chip, computer chip or chip) is a miniaturized electronic circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor devices, as well as passive components) which has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material.
2. Integrated circuits were made possible by experimental discoveries which showed that semiconductor devices could perform the functions of vacuum tubes, and by mid-20th-century technology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. The integration of large numbers of tiny transistors into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of circuits using discrete electronic components.
3. Integrated circuits can be classified into analog, digital and mixed signal (both analog and digital on the same chip).
4. Digital integrated circuits can contain anything from one to millions of logic gates, flip-flops, multiplexers, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. The latest server processor from Intel had 4 billion transistors on a chip.
Analog integrated circuits perform analog functions like amplification, active filtering, demodulation, mixing, etc.
5. ADCs and DACs are the key elements of mixed signal ICs. They convert signals between analog and digital formats.
6. ICs generally can be classified into analog ICs and digital ICs, according to the element’s (circuit) function. Analog ICs, like sensors, power management circuits, and operational amplifiers, work by processing continuous signals, while digital ICs like microprocessors, DSPs, and micro controllers work using binary math to process “one” and “zero” signals. However, today’s ICs often combine both analog and digital circuits on a single chip to create functions such as A/D converters and D/A converters. Such circuits offer smaller size and lower cost, but must carefully account for signal interference (see signal integrity).
7. The growth of complexity of integrated circuits follows a trend called “Moore’s Law”, first observed by Gordon Moore of Intel. Moore’s Law in its modern interpretation states that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit doubles every two years. By the year 2000 the largest integrated circuits contained hundreds of millions of transistors. It is difficult to say whether the trend will continue.
Notes:
| vacuum tubes | электронная лампа |
| substrate | подложка |
| logic gates | логический затвор |
| DAC (digital-to-analog converter) | цифро-аналоговый преобразователь |
| ADC (analog –to-digital converter) | аналого-цифровой преобразователь |
| flip-flop | триггер |
| dissipation | рассеивание |
| DSP (digital signal processor) | цифровой обработчик сигналов |
Вариант 3
I. Выберите правильный вариант видовременной формы глагола, перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, указав, в какой видовременной форме находится выбранный вами глагол.
Example: The engineer … to test the device.
a) was asked; b) have been asked; c) are asking; d) has asked.
The engineer was asked to test the device. – Инженера попросили испытать механизм. (Past Simple, Passive Voice)
1. Digital disks … of plastic coated with aluminum and the information is recorded by using a powerful laser.
a) is made; b) make; c) have being made; d) are made.
2. At present high-capacity optical transmission systems … between many major cities at a rapid rate.
a) are installing; b) are being installed; c) have installed; d) installed.
3. Telegraphs … by other forms of telecommunications such as fax machines and electronic mail, but they are still used in some parts of the world to send messages.
a) has largely replaced; b) are replacing largely; c) have been largely replaced; d) are been largely replaced.
4. Resulting changes in the plate current … by passing the signal through more tubes.
a) can be amplified; b) can been amplified; c) could amplified; d) can amplifying.
Работа над текстом
From the History of ICs
1. The integrated circuit was first conceived by a radar scientist, Geoffrey W.A. Dummer (born 1909), working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the British Ministry of Defence.
The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Called "Small-Scale Integration" (SSI), they used circuits containing transistors numbering in the tens.
SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects. Both the Minuteman missile and Apollo program needed lightweight digital computers; the Apollo guidance computer motivated the integrated-circuit technology, while the Minuteman missile forced it into mass-production.
2. The next step in the development of integrated circuits, taken in the late 1960s, introduced devices which contained hundreds of transistors on each chip, called "Medium-Scale Integration" (MSI).
They were attractive economically because while they cost little more to produce than SSI devices, they allowed more complex systems to be produced using smaller circuit boards, less assembly work (because of fewer separate components), and a number of other advantages.
3. Further development, driven by the same economic factors, led to "Large-Scale Integration" (LSI) in the mid 1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip.
LSI circuits began to be produced in large quantities around 1970, for computer main memories and pocket calculators.
4. The final step in the development process, starting in the 1980s and continuing on, was "Very Large-Scale Integration" (VLSI), with hundreds of thousands of transistors, and beyond (well past several million in the latest stages).
For the first time it became possible to fabricate a CPU on a single integrated circuit, to create a microprocessor. In 1986 the first one megabit RAM chips were introduced, which contained more than one million transistors. Microprocessor chips produced in 1994 contained more than three million transistors.
5. This step was largely made possible by the codification of "design rules" for the CMOS technology used in VLSI chips, which made production of working devices much more of a systematic endeavour. To reflect further growth of the complexity, the term ULSI that stands for "Ultra-Large Scale Integration" was proposed for chips of complexity more than 1 million of transistors. However there is no qualitative leap between VLSI and ULSI, hence normally in technical texts the "VLSI" term covers ULSI as well, and "ULSI" is reserved only for cases when it is necessary to emphasize the chip complexity, e.g. in marketing.
6. The most extreme integration technique is wafer-scale integration (WSI), which uses whole uncut wafers containing entire computers (processors as well as memory). The WSI technique failed commercially, but advances in semiconductor manufacturing allowed for another attack on IC complexity, known as System-on-Chip (SOC) design. In this approach, components traditionally manufactured as separate chips to be wired together on a printed circuit board are designed to occupy a single chip that contains memory, microprocessor(s), peripheral interfaces, Input/Output logic control, data converters, and other components, together composing the whole electronic system.
Notes:
| IC | интегральная схема |
| small (medium, large) IC | интегральная схема с маленькой (средней, большой) степенью интеграции |
| CPU | центральное процессорное устройство |
| CMOS | комплементарная МОП-структура |
| RAM | запоминающее устройство с произвольным доступом |
Вариант 4
I. Выберите правильный вариант видовременной формы глагола, перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, указав, в какой видовременной форме находится выбранный вами глагол.
Example: The engineer … to test the device.
a) was asked; b) have been asked; c) are asking; d) has asked.
The engineer was asked to test the device. – Инженера попросили испытать механизм. (Past Simple, Passive Voice)
1. The first digital disks … in 1982 as compact disks for music.
a) were produce; b) are produced; c) were produced; d) were been produced.
2. Satellite transmission … for international telegraphy.
a) is now widely used; b) have now widely used; c) is now widely using; d) is now been used widely.
3. When the conditions for fusion …, the energy released appears as intense ultraviolet radiation which heats up the surface of the reactor wall.
a) have been met; b) have met; c) are been met; d) were been met.
4. The intensity of a laser … to encode very complex signals.
a) can rapidly changed; b) can be rapidly changing; c) can be rapidly changed; d) can have rapidly changed.
Работа над текстом
Semiconductor
1. A semiconductor is a solid whose electrical conductivity can be controlled over a wide range, either permanently or dynamically. Semiconductors are tremendously important technologically and economically. Semiconductors are essential materials in all modern electrical devices, from computers to cellular phones to digital audio players. Silicon is the most commercially important semiconductor.
2. Semiconductors are very similar to insulators. The two categories of solids differ only in that insulators have larger band gaps energies that electrons must acquire to be free to flow. In semiconductors at room temperature, just as in insulators, very few electrons gain enough thermal energy to leap the band gap, which is necessary for conduction. For this reason, pure semiconductors and insulators, in the absence of applied fields, have roughly identical electrical properties. The smaller band gaps of semiconductors, however, allow for many other means besides temperature to control their electrical properties.
3. Semiconductors' intrinsic electrical properties are very often permanently modified by introducing impurities, in a process known as doping. Upon the addition of a sufficiently large proportion of dopants, semiconductors conduct electricity nearly as well as metals.
4. In certain semiconductors, when electrons fall from the conduction band to the valence band (the energy levels above and below the band gap), they often emit light. This photoemission process underlies the light emitting diode (LED) and the semiconductor laser, both of which are tremendously important commercially. Conversely, semiconductor absorption of light in photodetectors excites electrons from the valence band to the conduction band, facilitating reception of fiber optic communications, and providing the basis for energy from solar cells.
5. Semiconductors may be elemental materials, such as silicon, compound semiconductors such as gallium arsenide, or alloys, such as silicon germanium or aluminium gallium arsenide.
Notes:
| semiconductor | полупроводник |
| silicon | кремний |
| insulator | диэлектрик |
| band gap | запрещенная зона |
| impurity | примесь |
| light-emitting diode | светодиод |
Вариант 5
I. Выберите правильный вариант видовременной формы глагола, перепишите предложения и переведите их на русский язык, указав, в какой видовременной форме находится выбранный вами глагол.
Example: The engineer … to test the device.
a) was asked; b) have been asked; c) are asking; d) has asked.
The engineer was asked to test the device. – Инженера попросили испытать механизм. (Past Simple, Passive Voice)
1. In the late 18th century optical telegraphs … by Claude Chappe in France and by George Murray in England.
a) has been invented; b) were invented; c) invented; d) is being invented.
2. In radio telephones such as cellular mobile telephones, voice signals … across town or over long distances by microwaves.
a) are sent; b) is being sent; c) have sent; d) have being sent.
3. Some projects … into effect, because of the great technological difficulties to be overcome.
a) have not yet put; b) have not yet been put; c) are not yet putting; d) are not yet been put.
4. Since satellite systems do not require the construction of intermediate relay or repeater stations they … into service much more rapidly.
a) can be put; b) can put; c) can had put; d) can being put.
Работа над текстом
Doping and Dopants
1. The property of semiconductors that makes them most useful for constructing electronic devices is that their conductivity may easily be modified by introducing impurities into their crystal lattice. The process of adding controlled impurities to a semiconductor is known as doping. The amount of impurity, or dopant, added to an intrinsic (pure) semiconductor varies its level of conductivity. Doped semiconductors are often referred to as extrinsic.
2. The materials chosen as suitable dopants depend on the atomic properties of both the dopant and the material to be doped. In general, dopants that produce the desired controlled changes are classified as either electron acceptors or donors. A donor atom that activates (that is, becomes incorporated into the crystal lattice) donates weakly-bound valence electrons to the material, creating excess negative charge carriers. Semiconductors doped with donor impurities are called n-type, while those doped with acceptor impurities are known as p-type.
3. The concentration of dopant introduced to an intrinsic semiconductor determines its concentration and indirectly affects many of its electrical properties. The most important factor that doping directly affects is the material's carrier concentration. In an intrinsic semiconductor under thermal equilibrium, the concentration of electrons and holes is equivalent. Intrinsic carrier concentration varies between materials and is dependent on temperature. Silicon's ni, for example, is roughly 1×1010 cm-3 at 300 Kelvin (room temperature).
4. In general, an increase in doping concentration affords an increase in conductivity due to the higher concentration of carriers available for conduction. Degenerately (very highly) doped semiconductors have conductivity levels comparable to metals and are often used in modern integrated circuits as a replacement for metal. Often superscript plus and minus symbols are used to denote relative doping concentration in semiconductors. It is useful to note that even degenerate levels of doping imply low concentrations of impurities with respect to the base semiconductor.
Notes:
| doping | легирование |
| dopant | легирующая примесь |
| intrinsic | собственный полупроводник |
| acceptor | акцептор, акцепторная примесь |
| impurity | примесь |
| valence | валентность |
Контрольная работа № 4
При выполнении данной работы следует обратить внимание на следующие грамматические явления:
IV. Условные предложения.
В английском языке существуют 3 типа условных предложений.
1. I тип. Сказуемое обозначает реальное действие. Как правило, это сложноподчиненное предложение, где главное и придаточные предложения соединены союзами if (whether), unless. В главном предложении употребляется время Future Simple, а в придаточном – Present Simple.
Example: If I find a better job, I’ll take it. – Если я найду лучшую работу, я приступлю к ней.
2. II тип. Сказуемое употребляется в сослагательном наклонении и выражает предполагаемое действие, которое может относиться либо к настоящему, либо к будущему времени. В главном предложении сказуемое выражается при помощи would (should) +простой инфинитив. В придаточном предложении используется Past Simple.
Example: If you painted the walls white, the room would be much brighter. – Если бы ты покрасил стены в белый цвет, комната выглядела бы ярче.
3. III тип. Сказуемое обозначает предполагаемое действие, которое относится к прошлому. Это нереальное или невыполнимое действие. В главном предложении сказуемое представлено глаголом would (should) + перфектный инфинитив. В придаточных предложениях используется Past Perfect.
Example: Nothing would have happened if he had kept silent. – Ничего не случилось бы, если бы он промолчал.
Вариант 1
Работа над текстом
I. Прочитайте текст. Постарайтесь понять его содержание. Выполните задания после текста.
CAD
1. Designers have long used computers for their calculations. Initial developments were carried out in the 1960s within the aircraft and automotive industries in the area of 3D surface construction and NC programming, most of it independent of one another and often not publicly published until much later.
It is argued that a turning point was the development of SKETCHPAD system in 1963 by Ivan Sutherland.
The distinctive feature of SKETCHPAD was that it allowed the designer to interact with computer graphically: the design can be fed into the computer by drawing on a CRT monitor with a light pen. Effectively, it was a prototype of graphical user interface, an indispensable feature of modern CAD.
2. First commercial applications of CAD were in large companies in the automotive and aerospace industries, as well as in electronics. Only large corporations could afford the computers capable of performing the calculations.
The most influential event in the development of CAD was the founding of MCS (Manufacturing and Consulting Services Inc.) in 1971 by Dr. P. J. Hanratty, who wrote the system ADAM (Automated Drafting And Machining)
3. As computers became more affordable, the application areas have gradually expanded. The development of CAD software for personal desk-top computers was the impetus for almost universal application in all areas of construction.
Other key points in the 1960s and 1970s would be the foundation of CAD systems United Computing, Intergraph, IBM in 1974.
CAD implementations have evolved dramatically since then. Initially, with 2D in the 1970s, it was typically limited to producing drawings similar to hand-drafted drawings.
4. The 1980s’ advances in programming and computer hardware have allowed more versatile applications of computers in design activities. Starting the late 1980s, the development of readily affordable CAD programs that could be run on personal computers began a trend of massive downsizing in drafting departments in many small to mid-size companies. As a general rule, one CAD operator could readily replace at least four or five drafters using traditional methods. Additionally, many engineers began to do their own drafting work, further eliminating the need for traditional drafting departments. This trend mirrored that of the elimination of many office jobs traditionally performed by a secretary as word processors, spreadsheets, databases, etc. became standard software packages that "everyone" was expected to learn.
Today CAD is not limited to drafting and rendering, and it ventures into many more "intellectual" areas of a designer's expertise. Computer aided design is used in many businesses and organizations around the world.
Notes:
| indispensable | неотъемлемый |
| commercial | общепризнанный |
| perform | выполнять |
| implantation | реализация, внедрение |
| draft | проект, чертеж |
| eliminate | устранять (ошибки), удалять |
| CAD (computer-aided design) | компьютерное проектирование |
| 3D (3-dimentional) | трехмерный |
| downsizing | сокращение штатов |
Вариант 2
Работа над текстом
II. Прочитайте текст. Постарайтесь понять его содержание. Выполните задания после текста.
Вариант 3
Работа над текстом
I. Прочитайте текст. Постарайтесь понять его содержание. Выполните задания после текста.
Вариант 4
Работа над текстом
I. Прочитайте текст. Постарайтесь понять его содержание. Выполните задания после текста.
Вариант 5
Работа над текстом
I. Прочитайте текст. Постарайтесь понять его содержание. Выполните задания после текста.
Контрольная работа №3
При выполнении данной работы следует обратить внимание на следующие грамматические явления:
I. Страдательный залог (Passive Voice).
Сказуемое, выраженное глаголом в страдательном залоге, указывает на то, что действие совершается над лицом или предметом, выраженным подлежащим.
1. Образование. Страдательный залог образуется при помощи вспомогательного глагола to be в соответствующем времени и Participle II смыслового глагола (или третьей формы смыслового глагола).
2. Особенности перевода.
а) глагола-сказуемого:
– сочетанием глагола "быть" (в прошедшем или будущем времени) и краткой формой причастия страдательного залога.
| This book was published last year. | Эта книгабыла опубликованав прошлом году. |
– глаголом несовершенного вида, оканчивающимся на -ся, -сь:
| The experiments were madelast year. | Опытыпроводилисьв прошлом году. |
– неопределенно-личной формой глагола в действительном залоге в третьем лице множественного числа (при отсутствии действующего лица):
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– личной формой глагола в действительном залоге (при наличии дополнения с предлогом by). Дополнение с предлогом by часто переводится на русский язык подлежащим:
The student was helpedby the professor. Профессорпомог студенту.
б) подлежащего:
– существительным (или местоимением) в именительном или винительном падежах (когда после сказуемого стоит косвенное или предложное дополнение):
| The studentwas sentto the professor. | Студент был послан к профессору. Студента послали к профессору. |
– существительным (местоимением) в дательном падеже (когда после сказуемого стоит прямое дополнение):
| Wewere sentall the necessary equipment. | Нам послали все необходимое оборудование. |
– предлогом, стоящим после глагола в страдательном залоге и не относящимся к следующим за ним словам; при переводе на русский язык ставится перед тем словом, которое в английском языке является подлежащим:
The man can be reliedupon. На этого человекаможно положиться.
II. Указательные местоимения, местоимение it, употребление слова one.
К указательным местоимениям относятся местоимения: this, that, these, those.Функции и значение указательных местоимений в предложении:
1. Указательные местоимения:
| That is my pen. These (those) are the pictures of our friends. | Это (то) моя ручка. Это картины наших друзей. |
2. Союз, союзное слово вводит придаточные предложения: дополнительные, определительные, подлежащие, обстоятельственные.
| We know that a computer is a complex electronic device. | Мы знаем, что вычислительная машина является сложным электронным устройством. |
3. Слово-заместитель для замены упомянутого раннее существительного:
| The story of the telephone is similar to thatof the telegraph. | История развития телефона схожа с историей развития телеграфа. |
Особенности употребления местоимения it.
1. Личное местоимение:
| I like this doll. It is nice. | Мне нравится эта кукла. Она хорошенькая. |
2. Формальное подлежащее в безличных предложениях:
| It is necessary to carry out this experiment. | Необходимо провести этот эксперимент. |
3. Формальное дополнение (после глаголов find, make, think + прилагательное). В таких случаях они не переводятся.
| Radioelectronics has made it possible to test various equipments. | Радиоэлектроника дала возможность испытывать различное оборудование. |
4.Указательное местоимение:
| It is a dictionary. | Это словарь. |
5. Вводное слово в предложениях с эмфатической конструкцией it is (was) … that (who):
| It issilver thatis the best conducting material. | Именно серебро является лучшим проводящим металлом. |
Употребление слова one:
1. Числительное. На русский язык переводится «один»:
| I have one dollar. | У меня один доллар. |
2. Неопределенно-личное местоимение в функции подлежащего. Не переводится.
| One must be careful when crossing the street. | Нужно быть осторожным, переходя улицу. |
3. Заместитель существительного. Переводится местоимением тот, та, то, а во множественном числе – те или совсем не переводится на русский язык.
| This book is more interesting than the one we read last week. | Эта книга значительно интереснее, чем та (книга), которую мы читали на прошлой неделе. |
III. Глаголы to have, to be, to do.
Глагол to have.Основные формы: have – had – had.Употребление:
1. В качестве смыслового глагола в значении «иметь», «обладать».
| We have (got) a computer. | У нас есть компьютер. |
2. В качестве вспомогательного глагола в сочетании с Past Participle для образования различных видовременных форм глагола.
Have you heard the new rock-group? Вы слушали новую рок-группу?
3. В качестве модального глагола в значении долженствования. Сочетания have to в таких случаях переводится должен, нужно, надо, приходится.
| He has to take a bus to get to his office. | Ему приходится ехать автобусом до своей работы. |
Глагол to be.Основные формы: be – was/ were – been. Употребление:
1. В качестве смыслового глагола. Переводится быть, находиться, существовать или не переводится.
| I am at home. She was at the Institute yesterday. | Я (нахожусь) дома. Она была в институте вчера. |
2. В качестве вспомогательного глагола для образования форм продолженных времен и продолженных совершенных времен, а также для образования страдательного залога.
| They are reading now. A new magazine was bought. | Они читают книгу. Новый журнал купили. |
3. В качестве глагола-связки (быть, являться).
| I am a full-time student. | Я студент дневного отделения. |
4. Глагол to be в конструкции TO BE + инфинитив:
– в качестве глагола- связки:
| Her dream is to go to Italy. | Ее мечта – поехать в Италию. |
– в качестве модального глагола со значением “должен”:
| You are to come tomorrow. | Ты должен прийти завтра. |
Глагол to do.Основные формы: do – did – done. Употребление:
1. В качестве смыслового глагола и переводится ‘делать’.
| I do everything myself. | Я все делаю сам. |
2. В качестве вспомогательного глагола для образования вопросительной и отрицательной форм глаголов в Present, Past Simple.
| Do you like music? | Ты любишь музыку? |
3. В повелительном наклонении при образовании отрицательных форм.
| Don’t drink cold water! | Не пейте холодную воду! |
4. Во избежание повторения предыдущего основного глагола (тогда глагол do переводится тем же глаголом, который он заменяет) основной глагол может опускаться при переводе.
| She danced well. – Yes, she did. She lives in a hostel but I don’t. | Она танцевала хорошо. – Да (хорошо). Она живет в общежитии, а я нет. |
5. Усиление.
| Come on, be honest – who did tell you? | Ну давай, будь честным – так кто же тебе сказал? |
IV. Инфинитив.
Инфинитив, или неопределенная форма глагола, относится к неличным формам глагола и сочетает в себе свойства глагола и существительного. Инфинитив отвечает на вопросы “что делать?”, “что сделать?”: to read–читать, to write– писать, to promise – обещать и т.д.
Формальным признаком инфинитива является частица to, которая стоит перед ним. В некоторых случаях to опускается.