Substitution and omission as basic mechanisms of discourse.

Normally, discourse implies two coherent procedures – substitution and omission. Substitution and omission are very useful and important as they let us avoid repeating the same words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs or clauses) in our speech. We will study these mechanisms consistently in parallel with other things. Most common substitutes of nouns are certainly pronouns:

No errors are errors by themselves. They are only errors in relation to specific objectives. (They stands for errors).

Omission (another name for it is ellipsis) is leaving out words when the meaning can be understood without them:

Which color looks best here? The red or the green? (the red color or the green color)

‘I went freelance – what, fifteen years ago. Got my own consultancy now.’

‘Doing all right?’

‘I guess so.’

cf.

– I’ve / have got my own consultancy now. (omission)

– Are you doing all right? (omission)

– I guess I’m doing all right. (substitution, so being the substitute)

Substitution and omission often come together and complement each other. That is because they both take part in the process of predication. Substitution is replacing names or predicates by other words with the same reference or meaning. Omission implies leaving out words of sentence with the meaning of it staying clear. Actually, omission is concerned with incomplete, or rather implicit predications in which either the noun (argument) or the predicate (information word) is left out. Omission can also be treated as “no-substitute” substitution in which blanks stand for the meaning formed earlier in speech. There can be found lots of examples of substitution- omission interaction. Here is one of them.

Harry can do something about the matter, he really can. (He substitutes for Harry; he … can is an incomplete predication (omission) that means Harry can really do something about the matter.)

It is interesting to know that some of determiners (pre-determiners) can also function as substitutes for a noun or a noun phrase. Study the examples.

You, you and me are going to do the cleaning. A little bit each.

Obviously he tried to say something to me but I couldn’t understand what.

The car is definitely not John’s. It is somebody else’s but I don’t know whose.

Which of the two sets would you like to get? – I don’t like either.

Would you like to get one of these things? – Perhaps yes, but I am not sure which.

It’s so hard to choose. Both of them are good. I like both.

Research is a long-term process and should be treated as such.

There are many things you can do after you graduate. - Such as? (used to ask someone to give an example)

Hurry up. I haven’t got allday.

You still can’t put allthings on the ever-growing list of priorities.

In the exam he forgot all he knew.

Email them all.

2.1. 5. Determiners, pre-determiners and pre-modifiers: definitions and specifications.

A pre-modifier is usually a word (words) which stands (stand) between a determiner and the central noun of a phrase. Pre-modifiers involve adjectives, participles, other nouns, compounds and adverbs.

(1) adjectives

a new theory, some basic physical processes, these remaining problems, low probability,

political aspiration, a strong feeling, a natural ability, (it is both) a social and political problem,

a firm request, (in) a mathematical way, in a certain way, unfailing interest, analytical techniques

(2) participles

breaking news, their reiterated criticism, the galloping inflation, a calculated risk, the surface cleaning machine, a threaded discussion

(3) other nouns

(3.1) noun + ‘s + noun structure

Normally, the genitive (the ‘s structure) is used for human nouns and to a lesser extent for animal nouns.

the scientist’s paper the government’s policy the student’s achievements

the students’ success people’s needs children’s activities (irregular plural)

the boss’s / the boss’ idea Socrates’ method of teaching

an hour’s discussion

In general, the genitive (the ‘s structure) is preferred for the subject–verb relation:

Barton’ s discovery = Barton discovered something.

BUT: the discovery of Barton = Somebody discovered Barton.

The of-phrase is commonly used to show the verb-object relation. Consider another example:

John’s disappearance = The speaker implies that John disappeared of his own free will.

the disappearance of John = The opposite meaning. ( Also see Post-modifiers)

The opposition of the‘s structure and of-phrase is not strict and does not always hold. The ‘s structure can identify both subjective and objective relationship. In particular, Brian’s appointment or the new manager’s introduction to the team imply a subjective relationship.

Sometimes ambiguity can arise.

(3.2.) nouns in sequence: nouns modifying other nouns

a number field, a key operation, the subject matter, a noun phrase, human group nouns (e.g. the government, the board), vacuum level, device quality, point defects, electron density, molecular structures, a reference point, the killer instinct, the reception desk, the career service staff (people whose duty is to serve students seeking information on employment, study and careers).

As seen from the examples above the modifying noun(s) is (are) usually singular. Also: a 10-year study (not ‘years’), the book business (not ‘books’), a six-minute unit (not ‘minutes’). But the pattern seems to changing now. For instance, the library has a periodicals room, and the engineering college has a materials testing laboratory. Study more examples:

But: dynamic systems theory, a savings bank, an expenses chit (It was impossible , in the circumstances, to take a taxi and put in a pink expenses chit to get the money back off the firm ; which meant that either she’d have to pay for a taxi out of her own money, or take the slow but cheaper Tube.)

the careers bloke (The careers bloke at school said that Collin needed all sorts of A levels and stuff to train to be a lawyer.)

(4) compounds

the through-and-through relativistic view, the defect-free interface, well-established classical methods, palladium-catalyzed reactions, a different-colored box, a single-spaced typescript,

a two-way analysis, single-spaced typescript, six-by-eight black and white glossy prints, pretty advanced stuff

(5) adverbs modifying adjectives and nouns

a much discussed issue, the most commonly used ingredients, the further improved algorithm, pretty advanced stuff, graphically rich pages, professionally prepared experts, a well-organized lecture, patiently crafted naterials

BUT merely a matter of taste

Pre-modifier allocation.

If you get to use more than one pre-modifier you have to put them in a particular order. The rules for pre-modifier order are very complicated, different grammars disagree about the details; that is why it is hardly possible to give exact instructions. Nevertheless, some of the most important rules are presented in Table 3. You will note that you have to deal with the string of pre-modifiers in a right-to-left order starting from the noun modified. Study the procedure given in Table 3. Mind that normally we do not use all these types of pre-modifiers at a time.

Table 3

Modifiers showing judgments and attitudes with the middle position of little, old, young [7]	Modifiers before pre-modifiers [6]	Modifiers of size, length, height [5]	Participles, color-adjectives, adjectives denoting age [4]	The adjective derived from a proper noun [3]	The noun / adjective modifier is next closest specify-ing the name already identified by (I) [2]	The item meaning consisting of, involving, relating to [ I ]
		.				This is not a legal issue, this is a social problem. The algorithm works in any number field.
This is a world social problem. A method for factoring polynomials in an algebraic number field is presented. We refer to the Einsteinian spacio-temporal universe.
This is the Russian autumn medical symposium.
These are released Russian oil trade official decisions. These are new Russian science cosmic achievements. This is a matrioshka – variegated painted Russian wooden doll.
This is a very big variegated painted Russian wooden matrioshka.
An absolutely perfect design of the device is impressive.
This is a common little problem. This is a fine old picture. He is a promising young scientist. Also when modifiers are all judgments or attitudes: The trouble was that she’d done a strange, uncharacteristic and bloody stupid thing.

ASSIGNMENTS

A) Complete the sentences using all proper pre-determiners and determiners defined by the context (including “no articles”).

e.g. A name really has … definition in terms of … words, concepts, or pictures.

A name really has no definition in terms of other words, concepts, or pictures.

1) I am not going to get involved in the conflict. … of this concerns me.

2) I don’t know those people. … of the names are familiar to me.

3) What is … central focus of your presentation?

4) What the researcher really achieves is more important than the rate of … work.

5) … teacher is a key ingredient in student learning but he or she must work with … learner in … equal partnership.

6)… experiments can take us in … number of directions. To simplify matters, we can split them into … main types: test experiments and thought experiments. … … types are valid.

7) … team leader is to challenge … … team-members to put … expertise into practice.

8) When … new knowledge is firmly embedded through … series of … experiments you can draw … conclusions about it.

9) … problem is to be viewed within … wider context.

10) In … research it isn’t easy to predict … next step or consequence.

11) … of … colleagues has some useful experience.

12) … student assembles … or … project with … help of … teacher.

13) … individual has … opportunity to implement … newly acquired skills.

14) … … … applicants is going to win the grant./ … … … applicants are going to win the grant

15) … ,,, us are (is) to join the project. Not interested.

16) Responsibility? There is … … that here, or little.

17) We always make do on … low budget of 1 million. What you want means … … amount.

18) My colleague does many things better than … people.

19) Let … … people in the room see the poster.

20) Ten … minutes of that sort of conversation was good in a sense because it meant that Katie could score …two six-minute units on her time sheet, which in turn meant a proportionate increase in Mr. Holing’s bill.

21) I think I would take … issue with you over … particular statement. (I would disagree … I would argue … )

22) Don’t make … issue of what Dillan says. The matter is not worth arguing about it.

B) Translate the following into English making use of the patterns and vocabulary of A. Mind the usage of determiners and pre-determiners.

Если вы вовлекаетесь в какой-либо проект, будьте осведомлены не только о заманчивых результатах, но и о скрытых трудностях и возможных последствиях планируемого исследования.

Что является самым главным в проекте? Собираетесь ли вы приобрести новые знания, которые будут надежно включены в арсенал науки? Сможете ли вы достичь намеченных целей и воплотить полученные результаты в жизнь? Какого рода эксперименты вы будете проводить? Который тип экспериментов кажется вам более эффективным? Потребует ли работа каких-либо вновь приобретаемых квалификаций?

На какие источники финансирования вы рассчитываете (count on)? На грант, который вы обязательно выиграете? А что, если вам придется обходиться небольшим бюджетом? На каком основании (on what account) вы будете требовать, чтобы ваши сотрудники вкладывали все свои профессиональные знания и опыт в работу? Каким образом вы будете поощрять их, чтобы они добивались результатов?

Все эти проблемы непосредственно касаются вас. Это означает соответственное возрастание (proportional increase) усилий и времени, затрачиваемых на запуск проекта launching the project). Но какой-то мере вы заработаете преимущество (score an advantage) в качестве (as) наиболее компетентного и уважаемого (best respected) игрока команды.

2.2.2. Recall all, each, either, both, what, which, whose, none (of, neither (of), one, another, (the) other (others) and such as pre-modifiers and substitutes. Complete the sentences making proper use of them.

1. A couple went by, their young daughter holding one hand … .

2. McClymonts, senior and junior, were not pleasant men to deal with. Tony could not say that he took much to … of them.

3. – You’re building a six storey block here?

– That’s right. Three flats … on the first four, two big apartments spread over the top two floors.

4. It seems a bit presumptuous starting work when you don’t actually own the site. … is it going to be?

5. … side are you on?

6. It’s not easy getting the language right. … those words to learn, … the peculiar pronunciations to master.

7. ‘We’ve been playing nice so far, … with this being your home and … . But there’s only so much slack we can cut you.’ Interesting choice of words. Ben didn’t really need the hassle … this was going to create.

8. Grill the fish for 5 minutes on … side.

9. I would prefer to get something more up-to-date, but … to his (their) own. (каждому свое, кому как)

10. There are a few facts to consider. Let’s analyze … in turn.

11. I think this man is someone completely new who … us has ever heard of.

12. There are two basic approaches to solving this kind of problems … which are a hundred percent effective.

13. There are two quite distinct grounds, of which … is much more explicit than the … . We are equally interested in … .

14. The essential characteristic of introspective data is concerned with localization: 1) it is not localized at all; 2) its localization is physically inconsistent with something the place is already occupied with. In … case, introspective data has to be regarded as not obeying the laws of physics.

15. The meanings of some words are ultimately circular, … defined in terms of … . For instance, possibility means chance, chance means opportunity, opportunity implies possibility.

16. You can operate the controls with … hand.

17. You two! Nobody’s safe around … of you!

18. My colleague and I …have strong scientific opinions and we usually disagree.

19. If you can’t decide which of the two devices you might need in the lab, why not take…?

20. Although …Britain and Australia are English-speaking countries, there are many differences between the two.

21. If there was one … loopy philanthropist in the world, why not … ?

22. The opinion of … people never interested my friend in the slightest degree. Was it really a sign of his greatness?

2.2.3. Analyze a set of synonyms given in [ ] (square brackets) after each sentence (or just one word making a set phrase or the only option). Modify the underlined noun choosing one of them as a pre-modifiers; mind proper determiners.

1. What to do next is … problem [big, serious, major].

2. … issue is whether the funding is stable. [important, key, major, big]

3. Getting papers published is now … … issue for a scholar. [thorny, vexed, difficult]

4. Food prices are … issue. [ sensitive, political]

5. … issues should get more attention. [political, social, academic, environmental]

6. There is … chance that we will win. [every, good, fair; some, little, no; slight, slim, outside; fifty-fifty]

7. We never get … chance to relax these days. [any, slight, slim, outside]

8. Taxes are … necessity. [economic, practical, regrettable]

9. Our getting those premises now looks like … possibility. [strong, real, distinct]

10. A discovery like that is … possibility. [remote, faint]

11. The study raises … possibility that the theory is wrong or at least incomplete. [the, - ]

12. The project has … probability of making profits. [high, strong]

13. In … probability we will make mistakes. [all]

14. This is … procedure for grant application. [normal, standard, proper, correct]

15. It takes hard work and … ability to make it as a researcher. [ natural, great]

16. He is a scientist of … ability. [great, exceptional, remarkable].

17. It’s no easy matter to teach students in … classes. [mixed ability]

18. The country’s … capability is really limited. [manufacturing, military, nuclear]

19. There can be … powers: powers …, …, …, … powers. [various, powers of speech, powers of observation, ~ of concentration, ~ of persuasion; mental ~, magical ~ etc.]

20. There is … demand for fuel. [huge, great, strong].

21. Mr. D. is …lecturer, much in demand. [successful, popular]

22. That was quite … attempt. [successful]

23. What … attempt at humor! [feeble]

24. In … attempt to obtain some info, we contacted the department. [ in an attempt]

25. The author offers … reasons for rejecting this theory. [compelling]

26. You must have … reason to do that. [good, compelling, personal].

27. For … reasons, we changed the names. [obvious, simple, personal, sentimental]

28. Some people have … desire to visit this country. [ strong, overwhelming, burning]

29. The boss is full of … intentions. [ good, best ]

30. A high level of … aspiration is typical of every …leader. [political, academic ]

31. If one is careless with their expenses they are sure to face … financialcollapse. ( inevitable, unavoidable, inescapable)

2.2.4. a) Complete the following utterances using hints. Make use of proper pre- and central determiners, pre-modifiers and prepositional groups.

b) Comment on the situation described in every item according to how you see it.

e.g. It is no easy matter to find a parking place near your house. Actually, it’s … (major problem, big cities).

A) You reproduce a full statement saying: … Actually, it’s a major problem of all big cities.

B) You comment saying: Quite so. It’s very hard to find a parking space downtown.

1. The chronic lack of equipment is … ( permanent issue).

2. Reporting to the management on our progress is … ( regrettable necessity, setback for our research team).

3. The study raises … that one’s viewpoint on fundamentals is very nearly unchanged. ( possibility)

4. … , we will win. Actually, I’m almost sure of it. (probability)

5. I welcome … to sketch needed revisions and to comment on reiterated criticism. (chance)

6. Several of … … in the article cluster about the concept of a nanobot. (key, problems)

Note: in stories and films, nanobot is a machine that can move and perform jobs, but is so small that it cannot be seen unless you use some special equipment.

7. … … we are to be careful saying things. (obvious, reasons)

8. There is … for chairs on the premises, I must say. (strong, demand)

9. … …. quickly discloses the shortages of the system (control, procedure).

10. The scientist’s … to think in an original way is much … … . . (capacity, demand)

11. Professor is famous for his remarkable … (power, persuasion).

12. It is … … … to make a subjective and irrational enterprise of science. (obvious / blatant, attempt)

13. With … of acquiring systematic, time-tested and corrigible knowledge we study hard. (intension)

14. The question is whether the project matches … … of the students. (aspirations)

15. Most people know pretty well nothing about grammar and are, … , bad at it. (probability)