Read the text and say what you have learned about British state system.

Учебное пособие состоит из предисловия, трёх частей и библиографии. Каждая из частей (The UK Polity; The USA Polity; The RF Polity) содержит тексты информационного характера, знакомящие читателя с основными принципами государственного устройства Великобритании, США и России, а также с механизмами регулирования их внешней и внутренней политики.

Авторским коллективом разработана система послетекстовых упражнений, включающая следующие разделы: I. Match the phrases in English with their Russian equivalents. Find the sentences with them in the text and read them out; II. Answer the following questions. Give extensive answers; III. Read the sentences and say if they are true or false. Correct the false ones. IV. Talking point.

Методика последовательной реализации предлагаемой авторами системы упражнений направлена на формирование коммуникативных навыков иноязычной речи, дискурсивных умений публичной речи и страноведческих знаний, основанных на компаративном анализе изученного материала.

Учебное пособие может быть использовано при изучении английского языка по программам направлений бакалавриата, магистратуры и аспирантуры.

Part I

THE UK POLITY

UNIT I. POLITICAL SYSTEM

Reading_________________________________________________________

Read the text and say what you have learned about British state system.

I. Match the phrases in English with their Russian equivalents. Find the sentences with them in the text and read them out.

not legally enforceable	Верховный суд Англии
the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces	королевская санкция
head of the judiciary	юридически не осуществимый
the House of Lords	ранг, служебное положение
the Church of England	глава судебной власти
life peerages	Палата Общин
the House of Commons	Главнокомандующий вооруженными силами
Lord Chancellor	Палата Лордов
Royal Assent	верховный правитель
rank	лорд-канцлер
the Supreme Court of Judicature	церковь Англии
the ‘supreme governor’	пожизненное пэрство, звание пэра

II. Answer the following questions. Give extensive answers.

1. What does a constitutional monarchy mean?

2. Who is the constitutional monarch of Great Britain at present time?

3. List the powers of the British Queen.

4. What have you learned from the text about the "English Constitution"?

5. What are the three branches of power in Great Britain?

6. What is the legislative branch of Great Britain represented by?

7. Who composes the executive branch of power?

8. What is the highest judicial body in Great Britain?

9. What are the main functions of the three branches of power in Great Britain?

10. Why is English law considered to be superior to the law of most other countries?

III. Read the sentences and say if they are true or false. Correct the false ones:

1. British constitutional monarchy means that the monarch is the Head of State.

2. Queen Elizabeth I is the constitutional monarch of Great Britain at present time.

3. The Queen is the head of the executive branch of the government.

4. The British constitution is set out in a single document.

5. There are more than three branches of power in Great Britain.

6. The British Parliament is one of the oldest parliaments in the world.

7. Bills are proposed and discussed in the House of Lords, then sent to the House of Commons.

8. The British Queen appoints ministers for the Cabinet.

9. The main function of the judicial branch of the government is to see that the laws are carried out.

IV. Talking point.

Choose a topic and give your arguments for and against.

· There is no written constitution in Great Britain.

· One-third of the Lords today are company directors, bankers, newspaper proprietors and other businessmen.

· The real power of the monarchy has been steadily reduced over the years.

UNIT II. THE MONARCHY

Reading_________________________________________________________

Read the text and say what role the British Queen plays in the life of the country.

THE MONARCHY

Today the British Queen is an important symbol of national unity. Her complete official royal title is 'Elizabeth the Second, by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Her other Realms and Territories Queen, Head of the Commonwealth, Defender of the Faith', but she is usually referred to as Her Royal Highness or Queen Elizabeth.

The Queen’s constitutional role, however, is mainly symbolic. It is the Queen who formally opens Parliament every autumn, but the speech she makes from the throne, giving details of the government’s future plans, is written for her by politicians. Nothing becomes British law without the monarch’s signature, but the Queen would never refuse to sign a bill which has been passed by Parliament. It is the Queen who officially appoints the Prime Minister, but traditionally she always asks the leader of the party with a majority in the House of Commons.

The most important function of the Queen is ceremonial. On great occasions, such as the State Opening of Parliament, she is driven through the streets in a golden carriage, guarded by soldiers. She gives a state banquet, usually in her home Buckingham Palace, when foreign monarchs or Heads of State visit Britain and soldiers dressed in eighteenth-century uniforms help her welcome them. The Queen and other members of the royal family take part in traditional ceremonies, visit different parts of Britain and many other countries and are closely involved in the work of many charities.

Once the British Empire included a large number of countries all over the world ruled by Britain. The process of decolonization began in 1947 with the independence of India, Pakistan and Ceylon. Now, apart from Hong Kong and a few small islands, there is no longer an empire. But the British ruling classes tried not tolose influence over the former colonies of the British Empire. An association of former members of the British Empire and Britain was founded in 1949. It is called the Commonwealth. It includes many countries such as Ireland, Burma, the Sudan, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and others. The Queen of Great Britain is also the Head of the Commonwealth, and so the Queen of Canada, Australia, New Zealand... As head of the Commonwealth, she meets and entertains prime ministers of the member states.

The Queen is very rich. In addition, the government pays for her expenses as Head of State, for a royal yacht, train and aircraft as well as for the upkeep of several palaces. The Queen's image appears on stamps, notes and coins. Since Elizabeth II came to the throne in 1952, she has represented Britain in visits to most parts of the world.

Comprehension___________________________________________________

IV. Talking point.

UNIT III. POLITICAL PARTIES

Reading_________________________________________________________

POLITICAL PARTIES

Political parties first emerged at the end of the 17th century. The Conservative and Liberal parties are the oldest and until the end of the 19th century they were the only parties elected to the House of Commons. The main British political groupings are the Conservative and Labour Parties and the party of Liberal Democrats. The Conservative Party is the present ruling party, the Labour Party - the opposition to the Conservative. The Social Democratic Party was formed in 1981 and made an alliance with the Liberal Party in 1988.

Because of the electoral method in use, only two major parties obtain seats in the House of Commons.

The Conservative Party is often called the Tory Party. The word "tory" means an Irish highwayman. The Tories opposed the ideas of French Revolution and the development of Trade Unionism. The Conservative Party is right-wing, tending to be opposed to great and sudden changes in the established order of society. It is against state control of industry.

Today the Tory Party is that of big business, industry, commerce and landowners. Most money needed to run the party comes from large firms and companies. The party represents those who believe in private enterprise. The Tories are a mixture of the rich and privileged - the monopolists and is often called a party of business directors.

The Tories called the Liberals "whigs". A "whig" was a Scottish preacher who could go on for 4 or 5 hours at a time preaching moralising sermons. In the middle of the 19th century the Liberal Party represented the trading and manufacturing classes. At the end of the 19th century the Liberal Party lost the support of working-class voters and in 1988 made an alliance with Social Democrats and the party or Liberal Democrats was formed.

The Labour party was formed in 1900 by the Trade Unions. The Labour Party, sometimes called the Socialists, has a close association with the Trade Unions, although it is now not as left-wing as it used to be. It has many supporters, especially among working-class and middle-class people.

Comprehension___________________________________________________

IV. Talking point.

UNIT IV. LEGISLATIVE BRANCH

Reading_________________________________________________________

BRITISH PARLIAMENT

Parliament, Britain's legislature, is made up of the House of Commons, the House of Lords and the Queen in her constitutional role.

Parliament and the monarch have different roles in the government of the country, and they only meet together on symbolic occasions such as the coronation of a new monarch or the opening of Parliament. In reality, the House of Commons is the only one of the three which has true power. It is here that new bills are introduced and debated. If the majority of the members are in favour of a bill it goes to the House of Lords to be debated and finally to the monarch to be signed. Only then it becomes law. The House of Commons is the most powerful and decides national policy, but the House of Lords can ask the House of Commons to rewrite certain parts of a bill before it becomes a new law.

Although a bill must be supported by all three bodies, the House of Lords only has limited powers, and the monarch has not refused to sign one since the modern political system began over 200 years ago.

The House of Commons is made up of elected members, known as Members of Parliament (MPs). Each MP is elected by voters in one constituency (region). There are 651 MPs, or seats, in the House of Commons (524 for England, 72 for Scotland, 38 for Wales and 17 for Northern Ireland). The House of Commons is presided over by the Speaker, a member acceptable to the whole House. MPs sit on two sides of the hall, one side for the governing party and the other for the opposition. The first two rows of seats are occupied by the leading members of both parties (called 'front-benchers'), the back benches belong to the rank-and-file MPs ('back-benchers'). MPs are paid for their parliamentary work and have to attend the sittings. MPs have to catch the Speaker's eye when they want to speak, then they rise from where they have been sitting to address the House and must do so without either reading a prepared speech or consulting notes.

A proposed law, a bill, has to go through three stages in order to become an Act of Parliament. These are called readings. The first reading is a formality and is simply the publication of the proposal. The second reading involves debate on the principles of the bill, its examination by a parliamentary committee, and the third reading - a report stage, when the work of the committee is reported on to the House. If the majority of MPs vote for the bill, it is sent to the House of Lords for discussion. When the Lords agree, the bill is taken to the Queen for Royal assent. All bills must pass through both houses before being sent for signature by the Queen, when they become Acts of Parliament and the Law of the Land.

The 1,203 members of the Upper House, the House of Lords, are not elected. They are life peers: they are members of the House of Lords, but their sons or daughters cannot be members. Life peers are usually former members of the House of Commons. There are also a number of judges or bishops. The House is presided over by the Lord Chancellor who is head of the judiciary in England and Wales.

The members of the House of Lords debate a bill after it has been passed by the House of Commons. Changes may be recommended, and agreement between the two Houses is reached by negotiations. The Lords' main power consists of being able to delay non-financial bills for a period of a year, but they cannot finally veto them. They can also introduce certain types of bills. The House of Lords is the only non-elected second chamber in the parliaments of the world, and some people in Britain would like to abolish it.

The division of Parliament into two Houses goes back over some 700 years when a feudal assembly assisted the King. In modern times, real political power rests with the elected House although members of the House of Lords may occupy importantcabinet posts.

The main functions of the British Parliamenttoday are as follows:

• to pass laws;

• to vote on financial bills so that the government could carry on its work;

• to discuss the government's administrative policies - foreign affairs, the state of agriculture, educational problems, etc.;

• to debate important political issues of the day.

By custom, Parliament is also informed before the ratification of all important international treaties and agreements. The making of treaties is, however, a royal prerogative exercised on the advice of the government and is not subject to parliamentary approval.

The life of Parliament is divided into periods, called sessions. Each usually lasts for one year - normally beginning and ending most often in October or November. Each session is ended by prorogation. Parliament then 'stands prorogued', until the new session begins. Prorogation terminates nearly all parliamentary business: in particular, bills which have not been passed by the end of the session are lost, and every new session begins with a clean slate.

At weekends, at Christmas, Easter and the late Spring Bank Holiday as well as during a long summer 'recess' (usually late July until October) Parliament isadjourned.

Comprehension___________________________________________________

UNIT V. EXECUTIVE BRANCH

Reading_________________________________________________________

Read the text and name the bodies which represent theexecutive branch of power in Great Britain.

THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT

The executive branch of power in Great Britain is represented by the executive bodies which consist of 1) the Cabinet and other ministers of the Crown who are responsible for directing national policy; 2) government departments, who are responsible for administration at the national level; 3) local authorities who administer and control many services at the local level; and 4) statutory boards, who are responsible for the operation of particular nationalized industries or public services.

Her Majesty's Government is the body of ministers charged with the administration of national affairs. Framing the foreign and home policies is one of the main functions of the Government. In recent years the scope of Governmental functions has become wider. Now it is also responsible for supervising finance, different social services, etc.

The Prime Minister (PM) appointed by the Sovereign is the chairman of the Cabinet (a committee of leading Ministers). It is he who appoints its members, summons it and can dissolve it. All affairs of the state are conducted in the name of the Queen (King), but really the PM is responsible for every matter submitted to Parliament. He is a virtual ruler of the country. Informing the Sovereign of the general business of the Government is what the PM does as well. He also presides over the meetings of the Cabinet, which are always secret.

The Prime Minister usually takes policy decisions with the agreement of his Cabinet. As head of the Government he appoints about 100 ministers. About 20 ministers make up the Cabinet, the senior group making the major policy decisions. Ministers are collectively responsible for government decisions and individually responsible for their own departments. The Opposition has a duty to challenge government policies and to present an alternative program. Each new Prime Minister may make changes in the size of his Cabinet and may create new ministries or make other changes. The Prime Minister holds Cabinet meetings at his (her) house at number 10 Downing Street (British Prime Ministers have lived there since 1731), which is near the Houses of Parliament in Westminster. The Prime Minister is the most important person in Parliament (Britain does not have a President).

The work of Government is carried out through the various government departments and executive agencies, each directly or indirectly responsible to a minister and staffed by politically neutral civil servants - a change of Government does not involve a change in the civil servants staffing a department. Over half the Civil Service, about 295,000 civil servants, work in over 75 executive agencies. Agencies perform many of the executive functions of the government, such as the payment of social security benefits and the issuing of passports and drivers' licenses. Agencies are headed by chief executives responsible for their performance and who enjoy considerable freedom on financial, pay and personnel matters.

Ministers in charge of Government departments are known as "Secretaries of State" or "Ministers" or may have a traditional title. Who usually constitutes the Cabinet are the Prime Minister, the Chancellor of the Exchequer (who is in charge of money and finance), the Foreign Secretary, the Lord Chancellor, the Secretary of War, the Secretary of State for the Home Department, the Secretary of State for Education and Science, etc.

Comprehension___________________________________________________

IV. Talking point.

UNIT. VI. JUDICIAL BRANCH

Reading_________________________________________________________

Read the text and make the summary.

THE SYSTEM OF JUSTICE

Britain's Legal System. The first thing to notice is that there is no civil code and no criminal code. The law as a whole consists partly of statutes, or Acts of Parliament, and partly of common law. A large part of the civil law is not contained in statutes at all but made up of a mass of precedents, previous court decisions, interpreted in authoritative legal textbooks. By now, however, almost all actions for which a person may be punished are actions which are specifically forbidden by some statute.

The courts and lawyers have a strong tradition of independence from the government. There is no Minister of Justice, though the Lord Chancellor, who is effectively the head of the legal profession, is always a member of the Cabinet.

There are basically two kinds of courts. More than 90% of all cases are dealt with in magistrates' courts. Every town has one of these. In them, a panel of magistrates (usually three) passes judgement. In cases where they have decided somebody is guilty of a crime, they can also impose a punishment. This can be imprisonment for up to a year, or it can be a fine, although if it is a person's 'first offence' and the crime is not serious, they often impose no punishment at all.

Magistrates, who are also known as Justices of the Peace (JPs), are not trained lawyers. They are just ordinary people of good reputation who have been appointed to the job by a local committee. They do not get a salary or a fee for their work (though they get paid expenses). Even serious criminal cases are first heard in a magistrate's court. They then refer the case to a higher court. In most cases this will be a Crown Court, where a professional lawyer acts as the judge and the decision regarding guilt or innocence is taken by a jury. Juries consist of twelve people selected at random from the list of voters. They do not get paid for their services and are obliged to perform this duty. In order for a verdict to be reached, there must be agreement among at least ten of them. A convicted person may appeal to the Court of Criminal Appeal (generally known just as the Appeal Court) in London either to have the conviction quashed (i.e. the jury's previous verdict is overruled and they are pronounced 'not guilty') or to have the sentence (i.e. punishment) reduced. The highest court of all in Britain is the House of Lords.

Apart from the ordinary courts of law there are many kinds of administrative tribunals to deal with special problems, such as claims about unfair dismissal or disputed rights to social security benefits or to compensation for industrial injury or illness. Lawyers may be involved in these, and in some cases there may be appeals to the ordinary courts of law.

The legal profession. There are two distinct kinds of lawyer in Britain. One of these is a solicitor. Everybody who needs a lawyer has to go to one of these. They handle most legal matters for their clients, including the drawing up of documents (such as wills, divorce papers and contracts), communicating with other parties, and presenting their clients' cases in magistrates' courts. However, only since 1994 have solicitors been allowed to present cases in higher courts. If the trial is to be heard in one of these, the solicitor normally hires the services of the other kind of lawyer - a barrister. The only function of barristers is to present cases in court.

The training of the two kinds of lawyers is very different. All solicitors have to pass the Law Society exam. They study for this exam while 'articled' to established firms of solicitors where they do much of the everyday junior work until they are qualified.

Barristers have to attend one of the four Inns of Court in London. These ancient institutions are modeled somewhat on Oxbridge colleges. For example, although there are some lectures, the only attendance requirement is to eat dinner there on a certain number of evenings each term. After four years, the trainee barristers then sit exams. If they pass, they are 'called to the bar' and are recognized as barristers. However, they are still not allowed to present a case in a crown court. They can only do this after several more years of association with a senior barrister, after which the most able of them apply to 'take silk'. Those whose applications are accepted can put the letters QC (Queen's Counsel) after their names.

Neither kind of lawyer needs a university qualification. The vast majority of barristers and most solicitors do in fact go to university, but they do not necessarily study law there. This arrangement is typically British.

It is exclusively from the ranks of barristers that judges are appointed. Once they have been appointed, it is almost impossible for them to be dismissed. The only way that this can be done is by a resolution of both Houses of Parliament, and this is something that has never happened. Moreover, their retiring age is later than in most other occupations. They also get very high salaries. These things are considered necessary in order to ensure their independence from interference, by the state or any other party.

The duty of the judge during a trial is to act as the referee while the prosecution and defense put their cases and question witnesses, and to decide what evidence is admissible and what is not (what can or can't be taken into account by the jury). It is also, of course, the judge's job to impose a punishment (known as 'pronouncing sentence') on those found guilty of crimes.

Comprehension___________________________________________________

IV. Talking point.

Discuss the following issues:

· The first thing to notice is that there is no civil code and no criminal code.

· There are basically two kinds of courts.

· There are two distinct kinds of lawyers in Britain.

UNIT VII. LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Reading_________________________________________________________

IV. Talking point.

PART II

THE USA POLITY

UNIT I. POLITICAL SYSTEM

Reading_________________________________________________________

IV. Talking point.

UNIT II. THE CONSTITUTION

Reading_________________________________________________________

THE CONSTITUTION

A constitution may be defined as the system or body of fundamental principles according to which a nation or state is constituted and governed. A good example of a written constitution in this sense is the Constitution of the United States, formed in 1787. It is a relatively brief document of some 12 pages. The Constitution of the United States is the source of government authority and the fundamental law of the land. For over 200 years it has guided the evolution of governmental institutions and has provided the basis for political stability, individual freedom, economic growth and social progress.

The Constitutional Convention which was to adopt a new constitution, officially opened on May 25, 1787, in Philadelphia. The 55 delegates who drafted the Constitution included most of the outstanding leaders, or Founding Fathers, of the new nation. In the course of the Convention the delegates created a new form of government for the United States. The Constitution set up a federal system with a strong central government. A federal system is one in which power is shared between a central authority and its constituent parts (states), with some rights reserved to each.

The states preserved their own independence by reserving to themselves certain well-defined powers (education, taxes and finance, internal communications, etc.). The powers which were given to the Federal Government are those dealing with national defence, foreign policy, the control of international trade, etc.

Under the Constitution power was further divided among the three branches of the national government: legislative (the Congress), executive (the President) and judicial (the Supreme Court). Each was given its own authority.

These three powers established a so-called system of the checks and balances. This system gives each branch the means to restrain the other two. For example, the President has the power to veto acts passed by Congress, but the Congress may override the veto by a two-thirds majority. But the Supreme Court has the power to declare Acts of Congress (or of any State legislature) or the actions of a President to be illegal (or unconstitutional) if they are in conflict with the Constitution.

The Constitution provided the election of a national leader, or president. It provided also that federal laws would be made only by a Congress consisting of representatives elected by the people. The Constitution set up a national court system headed by a Supreme Court. This fundamental document provided the clearest example of a practical separation of the three principal branches of power.

The drafters of the Constitution saw that the future might bring a need for changes that is why they provided a method of adding amendments. The document that emerged from their deliberations in September 1787 was brief – a preamble and seven articles - over the past 200 years 26 amendments have been adopted, but the basic document, the Constitution itself, has not been changed.

But when the Constitution was first proposed and adopted, there was widespread dissatisfaction of the American people, because it did not contain guarantees of certain basic freedoms and individual rights. It also recognized slavery and did not establish universal suffrage.

In 1791 the Congress was forced to adopt the first 10 amendments to the Constitution dealing with civil liberties. They were called collectively the "Bill of Rights". From these amendments the Americans received guarantees of such basic rights as freedom of speech, the press and religion, the right of peaceful assembly, freedom from unreasonable search, arrest and seizure. The Bill of Rights also deals with the system of justice. Meanwhile, slavery was abolished many years later, by the thirteenth amendment (1865), and universal suffrage was guaranteed by the fifteenth amendment (1870).

Under the Constitution, no member of one branch of government may be a member of either of the two others. The President of the United States is not and cannot be a member of Congress (the legislative branch). Any member of Congress who wishes to become President of the United States must resign from that body before accepting the Presidency (Gerald Ford resigned from Congress in 1975 on becoming President). At the same time the President may or may not be a member of the political party with a majority in Congress. No member of the Government (the executive branch) with the exception of the Vice President (who presides over the Senate) may also be a member of Congress.

The Congress is empowered by the Constitution to remove government officials, including the President, from office, only by an impeachment process. Impeachment is a charge of misconduct brought against a government official or President by a legislative body.

Each state has its own Constitution. The State Constitutions have a similar structure with the Constitution of the United States. As a rule they include the preamble, the Bill of Rights, as well as provisions dealing with local interests: the division of powers, suffrage and elections, taxes and finance, education, etc.

Comprehension___________________________________________________

IV. Talking point.

THE POLITICAL PARTIES

Political parties are organized groups of people who share a set of ideas about how the country should be governed. They work together to have members of their group elected in order to influence the governing of the country. When members of a political party form a majority in the Congress, they have great power to decide what kinds of laws will be passed. With few exceptions, presidents tend to appoint members of their party to governmental positions.

Political parties are the basis of the American political system. They are in fact important institutions in American democratic life. The Constitution does not mention parties or make any provision for them. Despite this, parties began to form shortly after the Constitution was ratified (1789) and they proved to be effective in the American political system.

At the national level, the United States makes use of a two-party system that has remained practically unchanged throughout the nation's history, even though rival national parties have appeared and disappeared from the political scene.

Today the United States has two major political parties. One is the Democratic Party, whose origins go back to the nation's third president, Thomas Jefferson and which formed before 1800. The other is the Republican Party, which was formed in the 1850s, by people in the states of the North and West, such as Abraham Lincoln, who wanted the government to prevent the expansion of slavery into new states then being admitted to the union.

Party membership in any American party is rarely formal. Members of the Democratic and Republican parties are not registered; they do not have cards and do not pay membership dues. There are no official formalities for admission. Any voter during elections may become a Republican or a Democrat by a simple declaration, that he is a member of this or that party.

Americans do not have to join a political party in order to vote or to be a candidate for a public office. However, running for office without the money, which can be provided by a party, is difficult. Many voters become members of a party because they feel strongly about the party aims or want a voice in selecting its candidates.

Everyone votes in secret, and no one can know how other votes or force another person to vote for any particular program or candidates.

Most Americans today consider the Democratic Party the more liberal party. As they understand it the Democrats believe that the federal government and the state governments should be active in providing social and economic programs for those who need them, such as the poor, the unemployed or students who need money to go to college. The Democrats earned that reputation in the 1930s when there was a worldwide economic depression. During the presidency of Franklin D. Roosevelt the government under the Democratic Party established the Social Security program, which ensures that those who are retired or disabled receive monthly payments from the government. Labour unions also received government support.

Republicans are not vividly opposed to such programs. However, they believe that many social programs are too costly to the taxpayers and that when taxes are raised to pay for such programs, everyone is hurt. They place more emphasis on private enterprise and often accuse the Democrats of making the government too expensive. For that reason, Americans tend to think of the Republican Party as more conservative.

There are so many differences in both major parties that not all members of the Congress or other elected officials who belong to the same party agree with each other on everything. There are conservative Democrats who tend to agree with many Republican ideas. There are liberal Republicans who often agree with Democratic ideas. Very frequently in the Congress, there are both Democrats and Republicans who do not vote the way their party leaders suggest.

There are other, smaller parties in the United States besides the two major parties. None of these smaller parties has enough popular support to win a presidential election. But some of them are very strong in certain cities and states. They can have their own state or city candidates elected, or can determine which major party wins by supporting one or the other.

At every level of political life including town councils, state governorships, the Congress and the presidency, the Republican and Democratic parties struggle for public office. The selection of these officials is a two-stage process, first, to win the party nomination, and second, to defeat the opposing party's candidate in the general election. Persons elected to office exercise the power to make and execute laws as representatives of the people.

Comprehension___________________________________________________

IV. Talking point.

Discuss the following questions:

· What role do political parties play in the state government?

· Do major American parties have clear political platforms?

· What is informal party membership? Are you in favour of it or not?

UNIT IV. LEGISLATIVE BRANCH

Reading_________________________________________________________

THE CONGRESS

The Сonstitution of the United States grants all the legislative powers of the federal government to the Congress, which consists of two Houses: the Senate and the House of Representatives. Its residence is on Capitol Hill, in the center of Washington, D.C. The authors of the Constitution expected that the legislature (the Congress) would be the strongest branch of the new government. Though the role of the President and the executive branch of power has become too great today, the Congress still plays a very important part in the country's representative government.

The Senate, the smaller House, is composed of two members from each state, as provided by the Constitution. Membership in the House of Representatives is based on the number of population; therefore its size is not mentioned in the Constitution.

To be elected to the Senate a person must be at least 30 years of age, a citizen of the United States for at least nine years, and a resident of the state from which he or she is elected. To become a member of the House of Representatives a person must be at least 25, a citizen for seven years, and a resident of the state which he represents.

As has been mentioned above, each state, regardless of population, has two Senators. Thus, there are 100 Senators in the Senate from fifty states. The number of members of the House of Representatives is 435. This number was finally determined by Congress in 1913 and has never changed since that time. While a Senator represents his home state, each member of the House of Representatives represents a district in his home state. The size of a district or a constituency today is 530,000 people. Despite the number of population, every state is constitutionally guaranteed at least one member of the House of Representatives. At present, six states - Alaska, Delaware, North Dakota, South Dakota, Vermont and Wyoming - have only one representative. On the other hand, six states have more than 20 representatives, and California alone has 45.

The Senators are elected for a term of six years, but one third of the Senate is elected every two years. So, two Senators from the same state never finish their terms at the same time. Hence, two-thirds of the Senators are always persons with some legislative experience.

Members of the House of Representatives are elected for two years. But in practice most members are reelected several times, and the House, like the Senate, may rely on a group of experienced legislators.

The Congress meets in regular sessions, beginning with January 3, almost all the year round. The President may call a special session when he thinks it necessary. Sessions are held in the Capitol in Washington, D.C.

The presiding officer of the House of Representatives is the Speaker, who, as a member of the House, is elected by its members at the start of each Congress. His prestige is rather high; he is the second after the Vice President in the line of presidential succession.

By the Constitution the presiding officer of the Senate is the Vice President. The Senate chooses a President pro tempore to preside when the Vice President is absent. The Speaker and the President pro tempore are always members of the political party which has the majority in each House.

At the beginning of each new Congress, members of the political parties select their political leaders in both Houses (the leaders of the Democratic and Republican parties). These majority party leaders together with the Speaker of the House of Representatives and the Vice President constitute the "Big Four". They maintain close contacts with the President, exercise strong influence over the making of laws and have a direct hand in the consideration of current home and foreign policy.

The legislative work of Congress is done mostly in standing (permanent) committees. Today there are 22 standing committees in the House of Representatives and 16 in the Senate, plus four joint permanent committees with members from both Houses. With the increase in the amount of work, the standing committees have over 300 subcommittees to study specific problems. Each standing committee specializes in certain spheres of lawmaking: foreign affairs, defence, finance, agriculture, commerce and other fields.

The Congress is the supreme legislative organ. The Senate and the House of Representatives have equal constitutional rights. Each House has the power to introduce bills on any subject. Important bills may be suggested by the President or other executive officials. After introduction all bills are sent to certain committees. When a committee is in favour of a bill, it is sent to the Congress for open debate. When the debate is over, members vote to approve the bill or to defeat it.

A bill passed by one House, is sent to the other. After the bill is passed by both Houses, it is sent to the President for his approval. However, the President has the right to veto the bill. The bill vetoed by the President must be re-approved by a two-thirds vote in both Houses to become a law, an Act of Congress. The bills, proposed by the White House or the Cabinet, usually pass all stages without any difficulty.

As part of its legislative role, Congress has great investigative power. Members of the government can be called to a Congress committee to account for their administrative work.

The Congress exercises some other important influences on the other two branches of power (executive and judicial). For example, the Senate must approve treatiesmade with foreign countries by the President before they come into force. Only the Congress has the power to declare war against a foreign nation. The Senate has the power to approve or reject the President's candidates for the Supreme Court, other federal judges, Cabinet ministers (in the USA they are known as Secretaries), ambassadors, etc. The Congress is empowered by the Constitution to remove federal officials for crimes. In such cases an official is first impeached by the House of Representatives, and then tried by the Senate, which finds him guilty or not guilty. If this official (he may be a President) is found guilty he is removed from public office.

Comprehension___________________________________________________

IV. Talking point.

UNIT V. EXECUTIVE BRANCH

Reading_________________________________________________________

IV. Talking point.

UNIT VI. JUDICIAL BRANCH

Reading_________________________________________________________

THE COURT SYSTEM

The judicial power of the United States is the third branch of the Federal Government. It consists of a system of courts spread throughout the country and is headed by the Supreme Court of the United States. The Constitution says: "The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ... establish". With this in mind, the first Congress divided the country into districts and created federal courts for each district.

Since that time the following federal court structure has been established in the United States: the Supreme Court, 11 Courts of Appeals and 95 district courts. The Congress has the authority to create and abolish federal courts, as well as to determine the number of judges in the federal judicial system. However, the Congress cannot abolish the Supreme Court.

All the courts are independent. The federal judges are appointed by the President for life, in practice, until they die, retire or resign. They can be removed from office only for misconduct and after trial in the Congress.

Federal courts have judicial power over cases arising out of the Constitution, laws and treaties of the United States, maritime cases, cases dealing with foreign citizens or governments and cases arising between states. Usually federal courts do not hear cases arising out of the laws of individual states.

In addition to federal courts, each state has its own judicial system, including its own Supreme Court. This means, that the United States has two distinct systems of law, state and federal. As a matter of fact, the country has 51 sets of courts (in fifty states and the District of Columbia). As a result the United States has the most complex judicial system in the world.

The federal and state courts have the power to declare legislative acts unconstitutional, that is in violation of the Constitution. By Constitution the courts have the power to hear and decide the two classes of cases — criminal and civil.

The Supreme Court. The Supreme Court of the United States meets in the Supreme Court Building in Washington, D.C

The Supreme Court is the highest court in the country and the head of the judicial branch of the US Government. It consists of a Chief Justice and eight associate Justices. The Court meets on the first Monday of October each year and continues its session until June.

One of the most important duties of the Supreme Court Justices is to decide whether laws passed by the Congress agree with the Constitution. The Justices do this by interpreting and explaining the laws of Congress and the provisions of the Constitution. If the Supreme Court decides that the Constitution does not give Congress the power to pass a certain law, the Court will declare that law to be unconstitutional. Such a law will never come into force.

Most of the cases heard by the Supreme Court are on appeal from lower federal courts. The number of cases decided at an annual session is about 150.

Decisions of the Court are taken by a simple majority. The legal quorum of Justices, participating in the decision, is six (out of nine).

Courts of appeals. Immediately below the Supreme Court stand the courts of appeals. They make up the second highest level of the federal judiciary. The United States is divided into 11 separate regions, each of them being served by a court of appeals. The courts of appeals were established to hear most of the appeals growing out of district court actions. Only the Supreme Court reviews the decisions of the appeals courts.

District courts. Below the courts of appeals are the district courts. The Congress fixes the borders of the districts according to the population, size and volume of work.

Each of the district courts has from one to twenty-seven judges, depending on the volume of cases. Sometimes one judge serves two or more districts. A small state may itself constitute a district. District judges must live in the district, or one of the districts, for which they are appointed. Court is usually held at regular intervals in various cities within each district.

Most cases start in district courts. Cases begun in state courts are occasionally transferred to them. Almost all accused of committing federal crimes are tried in the district courts.

Special courts. The Constitution gives Congress the authority to establish other courts and to increase or decrease their number, as the need may arise. In addition to the federal courts of general jurisdiction, it has been necessary from time to time to set up courts for special purposes. Judges in these courts like in other federal courts are appointed for life terms by the President.

One of the most important of these special courts is the Court of Claims. It deals with monetary claims against the Federal Government. Usually claims are for unpaid salary, property taken for public use, contractual obligations, and personal injuries for which the Federal Government is allegedly responsible.

Another important special court is the Customs Court, which has exclusive jurisdiction over cases, connected with taxes or quotas on imported goods.

Comprehension___________________________________________________

IV. Talking point.

Discuss the following topics:

· the Constitution and the third branch of power;

· the Supreme Court and its prerogatives;

· the role of the Court of Claims.

IV. Talking point.

Compare British and American local government. Make use of the following questions:

· What are the federal units in both countries?

· Can the history of American and Russian federalism be compared? In what way?

· What affairs do local governments deal with?

· How do the countries differ in the system of city managing?

PART III

THE RF POLITY

UNIT I. POLITICAL SYSTEM

Reading_________________________________________________________

IV. Talking point.

Provide the comparative analyses of:

Legislative, executive and judicial branches in the UK

Legislative, executive and judicial branches in the USA

Legislative, executive and judicial branches in the RF

UNIT II. THE CONSTITUTION

Reading_________________________________________________________

IV. Talking point.

Discuss the following topics:

· The UK Constitution.

· The USA Constitution.

· The RF Constitution.

UNIT III. POLITICAL PARTIES

Reading_________________________________________________________

POLITICAL PARTIES IN RUSSIA

The Russian political arena today is diverse – there are more than a dozen different parties and political movements in the country. Unlike American and British democracies with two or three major parties, there are about ten political parties in Russia. All of them usually take part in general elections, but very few of them are represented in the State Duma, the elected chamber of the Russian parliament, and possess a real political power. These are: "United Russia" (314 seats), "Communist Party of the Russian Federation" (CPRF) (57 seats), "Liberal-Democratic Party of Russia" (LDPR) (40 seats) and "Fair Russia: Motherland, Pensioners, Life" (38 seats).

United Russia is a political party which usually labels itself centrist. It backs the current President. It was founded in April 2001as a merger between Yuriy Luzhkov's, Yevgeny Primakov's and Mintimer Shaeymiev's "Fatherland" – All Russia party, and the Unity Party of Russia, led by Sergei Shoigu and Alexander Karelin. The main highlights of its program include a powerful state, developing civil society and security for people living in the country.

United Russia is a relatively new party in the Russian Parliament but has been making great gains in federal and local elections. A great number of Ministers in the Russian Government as well as many Regional Governors and other senior government officials throughout Russia are members of the Party. Possession of the constitutional majority in the State Duma means that United Russia is eligible not only to pass federal laws, by also to make changes to the Constitution if not vetoed by the Federation Council or the President.

The CPRFis a political party that is sometimes seen as a successor to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU). The party has emphasized its uniquely Russian character and it has consistently invoked Russian patriotism and nationalism in addition to the official Marxism-Leninism of the CPSU. Being an opposition party CPRF has survived all Russian national election campaigns. The Communist party is considered the most important opposition party, but it is often said that in practice it is not an opposition anymore. Traditionally, the party electorate includes older people who lived under the Soviet system. The past few years have also seen a growth in its support of the leftist youth groups. But today the Communist Party has lost many votes.

The LDPR has been led by Vladimir Zhirinovsky almost since its founding, in 1989, as the Liberal Democratic Party of the Soviet Union. The LDPR describes itself as a centrist, pro-reform democratic party; however, it is often regarded, especially in the foreign media, as an ultranationalist party. The LDPR states that its main political opponents are Yabloko and the CPRF. The party has a strong regional network.

Liberal Democrats promise to protect Russian people everywhere in the world, support Russian Army and Navy, and create a booming economy by supporting Russian industry and agriculture.

Fair Russia was formed on 28 October 2006 as a merger of Rodina, the Russian Party of Life and the Russian Pensioners' Party. Sergey Mironov, the chairman of the Council of Federation, has become the new party's first chairman.

Fair Russia is also politically more to the left than United Russia, which is considered more politically to the right and generally more in favour of cautious economic liberalism.

Fair Russia did well in regional elections held in Russia on Sunday 11th March 2007 but didn't manage to become the second most voted party, a place that is still held by the Communist Party of the Russian Federation.

Other Russian parties to be mentioned are "Yabloko" (‘Apple’) and the "Union of Rightist Forces". They were created in 90s and have always positioned themselves as truly democratic parties struggling for the continuation of democratic political and economic reforms. They offer alternative strategies for democratic reforms that would lead to increased living standards and welfare. The electorate of these parties includes educated people supporting democratic ideas. In the last two Duma elections in December 2003 and December 2007 these parties received less than 5% votes and did not get Duma seats, so no "right wing" party is represented in Duma today.

Population polls held in 2006 show that today about one-third of Russians oppose the multiparty system. 19% of respondents think that Russia does not need political parties, while 16% believe the country needs only one party. A slightly larger number of respondents, 40%, support the multiparty system. According to 14% of respondents, it would be best if Russia had only two political parties, while 26% stated that three or more parties would be optimal.

Comprehension___________________________________________________

IV. Talking point.

Discuss the following topics:

· The diverse political arena: Pros and Cons.

· The diverse political arena in Russia.

· Major political parties and their programs.

UNIT IV. THE PRESIDENCY

Reading_________________________________________________________

IV. Talking point.

Discuss the following topics:

· The status of the President in the USA and the RF.

· The Russian President and the British Prime Minister authorities.

· The Prime Minister position in the UK and Russia.

IV. Talking point.

Discuss the following topics:

· Centralized and decentralized local self-government: advantages and disadvantages.

· The importance of local authorities’ best practices taken from abroad.

· Local self-government serves to aim of independent problems solution on the local level: myth or reality.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Part I

THE UK POLITY

UNIT I. POLITICAL SYSTEM

Reading_________________________________________________________

Read the text and say what you have learned about British state system.