Scan the text and answer the questions. The question “What is law?”has troubled people for many years

The question “What is law?”has troubled people for many years. An entire field of study known as Jurisprudence is devoted to answering this question. Many definitions of law exist, but for our purposes, law can be defined as that set of rules or regulations by which a government regulates the conduct of people within a society. Even with this explanation, many other questions arise. Where do laws come from? Do we need laws? Are all laws written? Can laws change? If so, how? Are all laws fair? What is the difference between laws and morals?

To understand the law, we must consider the relationship of law to morals. Our legal system is influenced by traditional ideas of right and wrong. Thus, most people would condemn murder, regardless of what the law said. However, everything that is considered immoral is not necessarily illegal. For example, lying to a friend may be immoral but is rarely illegal.

One thing is certain: every society that has ever existed has recognized the need for law. These laws may have been unwritten, but; even primitive people had rules to regulate the conduct of the group. Without laws, there would be confusion, fear, and disorder. This does not mean that all laws are fair or even good, but imagine how people might take advantage of one another without some set of rules.

Law is the whole set of rules that are supported by the power of government and that control the behaviour of members of a society. The law itself provides the basic structure within which commerce and industry operate. It safeguards the rights of individuals, regulates their dealings with others and enforces the duties of government.

There are two main kinds of the law – public and private (civil). Private law concerns disputes among citizens within a country, and publiclaw concerns disputes between citizens and the state, or between one state and another.

The system of law consists of different categories of law.

There are laws which enable citizens to take legal action against the state. These actions are part of constitutional law. A constitution is the political and ideological structure within which a system of laws operates. Most countries have a formal written Constitution describing how laws are to be made and enforced.

Many countries face similar social, economic and political problems. Nations have always made political and economic treaties with each other. International law is created to regulate relations between governments and also between private citizens of one country and those of another.

Criminal law deals with wrongful acts harmful to the community and punishable by the state.

Civil law deals with individual rights, duties and obligations towards one another.

As well as defining the powers of government, most constitutions describe the fundamental rights of citizens. These usually include general declarations about freedom and equality, but, also some specific provisions. The European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) was first adopted in 1950 and has now been signed by every country of Western Europe. Individual citizens of these countries have the right to bring a complaint before the European Commission if they think their government has broken the Convention. But despite the development of legally binding national and international conventions, millions of people in the world still do not enjoy human rights.

1. What is law?

2. What categories of law can you name?

3. What is the principle source of constitutional law?

4. What is the central institution of private (civil) law?

5. What does criminal law define?

6. What does international law regulate?

7. What is civil law connected with?

8. When was ECHR adopted?

9. What does ECHR deal with?

DIALOGUE

A: I should like to read English law. What university could you recommend me?

B: If I were you I would choose the Law Faculty at Cambridge University.

A: How many subjects are studied in the Law Faculty at Cambridge?

B: 25 subjects.

A: Which subjects do the law students study at this university?

B: They have a wide choice of law subjects. They are as follows: Roman Law, Constitutional Law, Administrative Law, Criminology, International Law, etc.

A: What kinds of degree are there in English universities?

B: In English universities there are several different kinds of degree, depending on the level of specialization. Most students studying at university for the first time take a normal degree, called a first degree. This kind of students is called an undergraduate. Some students continue to study or return to university some years later to take a second more specialized degree called a Master`s degree. This kind of students is called a postgraduate.

A: Does the course give an academic legal education or teach students to become lawyers?

B: The Law course at Cambridge University is intending to give a thorough grounding in the principles of law viewed from an academic rather than a vocational perspective. There are opportunities to study the history of Law and to consider the subject in its wider social context. The emphasis is on principle and technique.

A: What intellectual abilities does the law course develop?

B: Skills of interpretation and logical reasoning are developed, and students are encouraged to consider broader questions such as ethical judgement, political liberty and social control.

A: Do all Cambridge Law undergraduates become lawyers?

B: Most Cambridge Law undergraduates who read law do so with the intention of practicing, many do not, preferring instead to go into administration, industrial management or accountancy.

A: Should people who want to read Law study any particular subject at school?

B: Candidates intending to read law need not have studied any particular subject at school. It is as common for undergraduates to have a scientific or mathematical background at A-level as it is for them to have studied history or languages.

A: How many years does a first degree course last?

B: A first degree course lasts 3 years.

A: How many subjects do the undergraduates study?

B: Undergraduates reading law for three years study14 subjects.

A: Can students choose the subjects they study in the first and second years of the law course?

B: In the first year of the law course the students cannot choose the subjects they study. They study Criminal Law, Constitutional Law, The Law of Tort and Roman Law. In the second year five subjects are studied. The range of subjects on offer is wide – from Family Law to International Law. In the third year five subjects are studied. The range of options is even wider than in the second year of the Law course. The students take examinations at the end of the first and second year. Candidates may also participate in the seminar course, submitting a dissertation in place of the paper.

A: How many exams do postgraduates take?

B: Candidates for the postgraduate L.L.M. take any four papers selected from a wide range of options in England Law, Legal History, Civil Law, International Law, and Comparative Law and Legal Philosophy.

A: Thank you for your information.

Grammar Exercises

Present Indefinite

Affirmative	Negative	Interrogative
Long form	Short form
I work You work He works She works It works We work You work They work	I do not work You do not work He does not work She does not work It does not work We do not work You do not work They do not work	I don`t work You don`t work He doesn`t work She doesn`t work It doesn`t work We don`t work You don`t work They don`t work	Do I work? Do you work? Does he work? Does she work? Does it work? Do we work? Do you work? Do they work?

Spelling

Verbs ending in ss, sh, ch, x, o → es	verbs ending in constant + y → ies
I wash – he washes I go – he goes	I cry – he cries BUT: I play – he plays
Time Expressions with Present Indefinite
Once a week Twice a week Every day	Every morning Every year Usually	Always Sometimes Seldom	Never At noon In the evening etc.

I. Give the proper forms of the verbs in brackets:

1.He often (to listen to) records of classical music. 2. Steve (to keep) his books on a big shelf. 3. They usually (to write) letters on beautiful paper. 4. His grandfather (to prefer) to sit in a very comfortable armchair. 5. These shoes (to belong) to my sister. 6. My father (to know) Italian a little. 7. They (to spend) much time in the open air. 8. He (to play) tennis rather well. 9. My mother (to like) to cook. 10. Ann`s parents (to devote) much attention to their children.

II. Transform these sentences according to the model:

Model 1: Jim speaks German, (Polish).

Jim speaks German, but he doesn`t speak Polish.

Model 2: They speak English, ... (French).

They speak English, but they don`t speak French.

1. Mr. Cook writes newspaper reports, ... (books). 2. My grandmother does all the cooking, ... (the shopping). 3. Brian drives a motor-cycle, ... (a car). 4. My sister plays table tennis, ... (lawn tennis). 5. I like serious music, ... (pop music). 6. These workers build blocks of flats, ... (factories). 7. I like tea, ... (coffee). 8. They take exams in January, ... (in December). 9. Her brother studies at school, ... (at the University). 10. We live in Russia, ... (in the USA).

III. Transform these sentences according to the model:

Model: Fred doesn`t keep his notebooks on the table. (in his drawer)

He keeps them in his drawer.

1. She doesn`t study Greek. (Latin) 2. He doesn`t leave home at 8. (at 8.30) 3. Ann doesn`t drink tea in the morning. (coffee) 4. My sister doesn`t like yogurt. (milk) 5. Mother doesn`t cook breakfast. (dinner) 6. My brother doesn`t go to the theatre. (to the cinema) 7. She doesn`t spend her vacation at the seaside. (in the country) 8. John`s sister doesn`t study medicine. (law) 9. Nick doesn`t go in for boxing. (body-building) 10. Kate doesn`t live in the hostel. (at her aunt`s)

IV. Ask questions using the question words given:

Model 1: They prefer to go to the cinema. (Where ... ?)

Where do they prefer to go?

Model 2: He usually leaves home at 8 o`clock. (When ... ?)

When does he usually leave home?

1. The Blacks live in a small village near Liverpool. (Where ... ?) 2. These men go to the pub every evening. (How often ... ?) 3. They take exams in January and in June. (When ... ?) 4. Mary usually does her room very quickly. (How ...?) 5. We want to catch the six-o`clock-train. (What train ... ?) 6. Mother wakes him up at a quarter to 7 a.m. (At what time ... ?) 7. They want to buy a new dictionary for their son. (Who ... for?) 8. He likes home-produced foodstuffs best. (Which ... ?) 9. He studies at the Law Academy because of the family tradition. (Why ... ?) 10. She often uses her father`s computer. (Whose ... ?)

V. Choose the correct item:

1. There ... many higher schools in our city.

a) do

b) does

c) is

d) has

e) are

2. I ... nothing in my hand.

a) am

b) do

c) have

d) does