The Information-Processing Model

The information-processing model uses the way a computer works as a way of un­derstanding how the human mind works. Just as a computer takes in input, pro­cesses it, and produces output, the human mind takes in information (sensory experience), processes it (thinks), and produces output (behavior).

Information-processing theorists are concerned with the nature of the cogni­tive processes rather than with the developmental stages through which thinking evolves. These theorists agree with Piaget, however, that people are active learners and that a person's prior knowledge is a critical component of new learning. Ac­cording to information-processing theory, students learn most effectively when they can relate new knowledge to what they already know. Information-processing the­ory has made its greatest contribution in explaining how human memory works, that is, how we take in information (encoding), organize it in our minds (storage), and gain access to it when needed (retrieval).

THE SOCIAL LEARNING APPROACH

Social learning theory, which is also called observational learning, focuses on how we learn by observing the behavior of others. Conceptu­ally, social learning theory provides a link between the behavioral and cognitive ap­proaches. To understand the linkage, however, it is first necessary to distinguish the concepts of learning and performance.

Learning and Performance

People can learn to do many things without actually doing them. Perhaps you have been on an airplane and learned how to put on a life jacket by observing the flight attendant's demonstration. You didn't have to put on the jacket to learn how to do so. The only way to verify that you have learned how to put on a life jacket would be to have you perform the behavior.

According to social learning theory, people may learn simply by observing a model. Consider the following illustration. Students in a keyboarding class may learn how to type capital letters by observing how the teacher strikes a letter key while simultaneously holding down the shift key. It is not necessary for students themselves to type capital letters to learn how to do so. In all likelihood, of course, the teacher would have students type capital letters to demonstrate by their perfor­mance that they have learned correctly.

The important point is that learning may take place without any observable response and without any reinforcement. In other words, even though the students may not do any typing at all or receive any form of reinforcement or reward from the teacher, they still may learn. The fact that people may learn without making an observable response and without being reinforced is a dominant principle in social learning theory.

Note that this principle is completely contrary to the view of behaviorists, who claim that a response can be learned only if it is observable and reinforced. On the other hand, note that this principle is consistent with the cognitive approach to learning. Cognitivists could easily account for students having learned to type capi­tal letters without actually typing. They would argue that changes occurred in the students' mental images and thinking about typing as a result of having observed the teacher type. The cognitive approach and social learning theory both account for learning in terms of cognitive changes.

The Role of Reinforcement in Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory, however, is related to the behavioral approach in that both approaches take reinforcement into account, although in different ways. Behavioral theory claims that behavior must be reinforced if learning is to oc­cur. Social learning theory claims that although reinforcement is not necessary for learning to occur, the use of reinforcement increases the likelihood that what has been learned will actually be performed.

In social learning theory, reinforcement serves a motivational role. A person is more likely to perform a newly learned response if the response has been reinforced than if it has not been. Furthermore, if the person modeling a particular kind of behavior is reinforced, chances are increased that the observer will also perform the behavior. This kind of reinforcement is called vicarious reinforcement. People are more likely to perform the behavior carried out by the model if they see the model being reinforced. Reinforcing the model serves the same function as reinforcing the learner in terms of increasing the probability that the learner will perform the ob­served behavior.

Just as reinforcing the model increases the chances that the learner will engage in the observed behavior, punishing the model decreases the chances. The conse­quences following a response determine whether the response is likely to occur in the future or not.

Effective Models

Effective models may be real people, such as teachers, classmates, entertainment ce­lebrities, political leaders, or great athletes, but they don't have to be. Fictional characters appearing in television shows, stories, novels, or cartoons can also be effective models. As a matter of fact, much of the pioneering research on observational learning investigated the effects of the behavior of cartoon charac­ters on the behavior of children. Individuals tend to imitate models who are perceived as competent, powerful, and attractive, as well as those whose behavior is relevant to the observer. Models with whom learners identify can be particularly effective, but to a large extent, a model's effectiveness depends on the degree to which the learner is motivated to learn.

Teachers as Models

Students learn much in the classroom by observing how their teachers behave, and students whose teachers have been trained in modeling techniques perform better academically than students whose teachers have not received such training. By observing teachers, students learn not only academic skills, such as how to solve algebraic equations or how to pronounce words in a foreign language, but also many important nonacademic behaviors. Students may learn interpersonal skills by observing how teachers interact with students and with other teachers. They may also adopt teachers' attitudes toward a variety of topics, ranging from those related to education and schooling to those extending well be­yond the classroom. Students may even imitate mannerisms their teachers exhibit.

Good teachers are not only effective models; they also constantly keep in mind that their behavior, both intentional and unintentional, can profoundly affect what students learn. Above all, good teachers know how to motivate students to learn. A teacher's responsibility goes beyond just presenting lessons; the teacher is a model for students and can have a profound effect on students' attitudes, beliefs, and behavior.