Subordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions may introduce subject clauses, object clauses, predicative clauses, adverbial clauses, and attributive clauses.1
1 See Chapter XVII, The Complex Sentence.
Many of the subordinating conjunctions introduce different kinds of clauses. For instance that may introduce subject clauses, predicative clauses, object clauses, adverbial clauses of purpose and of result.
ThatRuth had little faith in his power as a writer did not alter her nor diminsh
her in Martin’s eyes. (London) (SUBJECT CLAUSE)
What I mean is thatyou’re the first man I ever met who’s willing to admit out
loud to a woman that he thinks she’s better than he is. (Wilson)
(PREDICATIVE CLAUSE)
He looked to the south and knew thatsomewhere beyond those blue hills lay
the Great Bear Lake. (London) (OBJECT CLAUSE)
He walked into the Green Park thathe might cross to Victoria Station and
take the Underground into the City. (Galsworthy) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE
OF PURPOSE)
He bailed wildly at first, splashing himself and flinging the water so short a
distance thatit ran back into the pool. (London) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF
RESULT)
The conjunction if introduces object clauses and adverbial clauses of condition:
He was anxious to see ifshe had relapsed since the previous evening.
(Dickens) (OBJECT CLAUSE)
Ifthe man ran, he would run after him; but the man did not run. (London)
(ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF CONDITION)
The conjunction as introduces adverbial clauses of time, of cause, and of comparison:
These were the thoughts of the man as he strove onward. (London)
(ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF TIME)
As Jacob has made me captain, I must call the roll. (Dodge) (ADVERBIAL
CLAUSE OF CAUSE)
That day had decreased the distance between him and the ship by three miles;
the next day by two — for he was crawling now as Bill had crawled.
(London) (ADVERBIAL CLAUSE OF COMPARISON)
The conjunction while may express both coordination and subordination. It may be a coordinating adversative conjunction (in this case it is translated as тогда как; a) or a subordinating conjunction of time (in this case it is translated as в то время как, пока).
Older men probably resented him while others of his own generation could
feel so inadequate when comparing their talent to his... (Wilson)
(COORDINATING CONJUNCTION)
While skating along at full speed, they heard the cars from Amsterdam
coming close behind them. (Dodge) (SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION)
Subordinating conjunctions may also be used in simple sentences. They join adverbial modifiers to the predicate of the sentence. Conjunctions of comparison, such as as if, as though are frequently used in simple sentences.
He scowled at first; then, as if recollecting something, he said... (Ch. Bronte)
He seemed faint and dizzy and put out his free hand while he reeled, as
though seeking support against the air. (London)
The subordinating conjunctions though and if are also used in simple sentences:
Though alone, he was not lost. (London)
Next, he sheered to the left, to escape the foot of the bed; but this sheer, if too
generous, brought him against the corner of the table. (London)
Subordinating conjunctions of time are rarely used in simple sentences. In that case they are mostly used with participles:
That she was one of those women — not too common in the Anglo-Saxon
race — born to be loved and to love, who whennot loving are not living, had
certainly never even occurred to him. (Galsworthy)
Only rarely does a subordinating conjunction pin homogeneous members:
He was gay thoughtired.
CHAPTER XIV
THE PARTICLE
§ 1.The particle is a part of speech giving modal or emotional emphasis to other words or groups of words or clauses. A particle may join one part of the sentence to another (connecting particles). Particles have no independent function in the sentence.
§ 2. According to their meaning particles fall under the following main groups:
1. Limitingparticles: only, just, but, alone, solely, merely, barely, etc.
I only wanted to make you speak. (Shaw)
Just one question, Mrs. Dartie. Are you still fond of your husband?
(Galsworthy)
Soames was but following in the footsteps of his father. (Galsworthy)
Her name alone was almost enough for one who was terribly susceptible to
the charm of words. (Galsworthy)
He had taken up with it solely because he was starving. (London)
She (Ruth) thought she was merely interested in him (Martin) as an unusual
type possessing various potential excellences, and she even felt philanthropic
about it. (London)
They were spreading not merely on the surface, but within. (Galsworthy)
He barely acknowledged the young fellow’s salute. (Galsworthy)
2. Intensifying particles: simply, still, just, yet, all, but, only, quite, even, etc.
He made plans to renew this time in places still more delightful. (Galsworthy)
He justdid dislike him. (Galsworthy)
They did not even know that he was married. (Galsworthy)
If Jo were onlywith him! (Galsworthy)
But out there he’ll simplyget bored to death. (Galsworthy)
3. Connectingparticles: too, also.
Higgins comes in. He takes off the hat and overcoat.
Pickering comes in. He alsotakes off his hat and overcoat. (Shaw)
He (James) was silent. Soames, too,was silent. (Galsworthy)
4. Negativeparticles: not, never.
No, he was notafraid of that. (Galsworthy)
She looked round her. Nothing — not a thing, no tiniest disturbance
of her hall, nor of the dining room. (Galsworthy)
I neverspoke to him except to ask him to buy a flower off me. (Shaw)
Some of the particles are polysemantic, for instance just, only.
That’s justhis way of talking. (Dreiser) (LIMITING PARTICLE)
Why, I think, that’s a terrible price to ask for it, justawful. (Dreiser)
(INTENSIFYING PARTICLE)
French people onlycome to England to make money. (Galsworthy)
(LIMITING PARTICLE)
If onlythere were a joyful future to look forward to! (Galsworthy)
(INTENSIFYING PARTICLE)
Almost all the particles are homonymous with other parts of speech, chiefly with adverbs (simply), but also with conjunctions (but), pronouns (all), and adjectives (only). The particles else, solely, merely have no homonyms.
Part II
SYNTAX
Chapter XV
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE
§ 1. A sentence is a unit of speech whose grammatical structure conforms to the laws of the language and which serves as the chief means of conveying a thought. A sentence is not only a means of communicating something about reality but also a means of showing the speaker’s attitude to it.
§ 2. The classification of simple sentences is based on two principles:
(A) according to the purpose of the utterance;
(B) according to the structure.
According to the purpose of the utterance we distinguish four kinds of sentences.
1. The declarative sentence.
A declarative sentence states a fact in the affirmative or negative form. In a declarative sentence the subject precedes the predicate. It is generally pronounced with a falling intonation.
Charles Dickens was born at Landport, Portsmouth. (Laing)
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They don’t want anything from us — not even our respect. (Douglas)
There is a great difference between English and Russian negative sentences. Whereas in English the predicate of a sentence can have only one negation, in Russian it can have more than one.
He does notgo anywhere.
He nevergoes anywhere. Он никуда не ходит.
2. The interrogativesentence.
An interrogative sentence asks a question. It is formed by means of inversion, i. e. by placing the predicate (or part of it) before the subject (unless the subject of the interrogative sentence is an interrogative word, in which case there is no inversion; see Chapter XVI, § 3).
There are four kinds of questions:
(a) Generalquestions requiring the answer yes or no and spoken with a rising intonation. They are formed by placing part of the predicate, i. e. the auxiliary or modal verb before the subject of the sentence.
Do youlike art?
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Can youspeak English?
If the predicate is expressed by the verbs to be or to have (the latter expressing possession) used in a simple tense form, the question is formed by placing the predicate before the subject.
Is heat home?
Have youmany English books?
Sometimes such questions have a negative form and express astonishment or doubt.
Haven’t you seen him yet?
In Russian the particles разве, неужели are used in such questions. General questions are sometimes rhetoric questions, they do not require any answer, but are veiled statements expressing some kind of emotion.
Can you commit a whole country to their own prisons? Will you erect a gibbet
in every field and hang men like scarecrows? (Byron)
(b) Specialquestions beginning with an interrogative word and spoken with a falling intonation. The order of words is the same as in general questions, but the interrogative word precedes the auxiliary verb.
Wheredo you live?
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When the interrogative word is the subject of the interrogative sentence or an attribute to the subject, the order of words is that of a statement, i. e. no inversion is used.
Wholives in this room?
Whose pen is on the table?
(c) Alternativequestions, indicating choice and spoken with a rising intonation in the first part and a falling intonation in the second part.
Do you live in town or in the country?
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(d) Disjunctivequestions requiring the answer yes or no and consisting, of an affirmative statement followed by a negative question, or a negative statement followed by an affirmative question. The first part is spoken with a falling intonation and the second part with a rising intonation.
You speak English, don’t you?
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You are not tired, are you?
3. The imperativesentence.1
1 See the formation of the Imperative Mood (Chapter VII, Mood).
An imperative sentence serves to induce aperson to do something, so it expresses a command, a request, an invitation, etc.
Commands are characterized by a falling tone.
Come to the blackboard!
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Stop talking!
Requests and invitations arecharacterized by a rising intonation.
Open the door, please!
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Do come to see me to-morrow!
4. The exclamatory sentence.
An exclamatory sentence expresses some kind of emotion or feeling. It often begins with the words what and how, it is always in the declarative form, i. e. no inversion takes place. It is generally spoken with a falling intonation.
What a lovely day it is!
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What fine weather!
How wonderful!
Beautiful!
§ 3. According to their structure simple sentences are divided into two-member and one-member sentences.
A two-member sentence has two members — a subject and a predicate. If one of them is missing it can be easily understood from the context.
Fleur had establishedimmediate contact with an architect. (Galsworthy)
A two member sentence may be complete or incomplete. It is complete when it has a subject and a predicate.
Young Jolyon could not help smiling. (Galsworthy)
It is incomplete when one of the principal parts or both of them are missing, but can be easily understood from the context. Such sentences are called elliptical and are mostly used in colloquial speech and especially in dialogue.
Best not to see her again. Best to forget all about her. (Abrahams)
What were you doing? Drinking. (Shaw)
Who does it for Mr. George? James, of course. (Galsworthy)
Where were you yesterday? At the cinema.
A one-member sentence is a sentence having only one member which is neither the subject nor the predicate. This does not mean, however, that the other member is missing, for the one member makes the sense complete.
One-member sentences are generally used in descriptions and in emotional speech.
If the main part of a one-member sentence is expressed by a noun, the sentence is called nominal. The noun may be modified by attributes,
Dusk — of a summer night. (Dreiser)
Freedom! Bells ringing out, flowers, kisses, wine. (Heym)
The dull pain and the life slowly dripping out of him. (Heym)
The main part of a one-member sentence is often expressed by an infinitive.
No! To have his friendship, his admiration, but not at that price. (Galsworthy)
To die out there — lonely, wanting them, wanting home! (Galsworthy)
§ 4. Simple sentences, both two-member and one-member, can be unextended and extended. A sentence consisting only of the primary or principal parts is called an unextended sentence.
She is a student.
Birds fly.
Winter!
An extended sentence is a sentence consisting of the subject, the predicate and one or more secondary parts (objects, attributes, or adverbial modifiers).
The two native women stole furtive glances at Sarie. (Abrahams)
The two white overseers... had gone into the hills with the natives to look for
stray sheep. (Abrahams)
PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
In a sentence we distinguish the principal parts, secondary parts and independent elements. The principal parts of a sentence are the subject and the predicate. The secondary parts are the attribute, the object and the adverbial modifier.