Lecture 10. Word Groups

The word group has been one of the most important subjects for consideration and discussion for a very long time, since the time of prenormative and normative groomers. In old grammars they paid much more attention to word groups than to sentences. Still later the term "phrase" was introduced for the word group. Some linguists (H. Sweet) claim that this term is very wide ("phrase") — it may be even a sentence, but nevertheless the term is still used.

The structure and meaning.
1) The structure is shown be a syntactic formula. It shows the structure of word-groups by the order of the arrangement of their components indicating them as parts of speech (V+N = to release a prisoner, to run a factory).
2) By using syntactic patterns they describe the word groups in relation to the head word (to release, to run).
The word group is an intermediate unit between a word and a sentence. On the one hand a word group is closer to a word in meaning, thus a word group is an extended word, but on the other hand, from the structural point of view a word 'group is closer to a sentence, because like a sentence a word group has a certain syntactic structure, word order and certain means of connection.

There are two basic approaches to the structure of the word group:

1) a word group is any combination of words;

2) a word group presupposes the presence of notional words.

The word-groups have lexical and structural meaning.
Lexical meaning is defined as the combined lexical meaning of the component words. Idiomatic meaning — the total change of the initial combined meaning (to catch smb red-handed)
Structural meaning is conveyed by the pattern of arrangement of its constituents (school grammar - grammar school).

One of the greatest differences between a word group and a sentence is that a classical word group is a non-predicative unit, because a word group doesn't carry predication (only sentences can carry it). A word group is a static explanation; a sentence carries some dynamic force. Thus a word group has no intonation of its own.

Structural classification:
- Predicative — have syntactic structure similar to that of a sentence (the horse has run away)
- Non-predicative: subordinate and coordinate.
Subordinate word-groups — consist of a head-word and words subordinate to it (to release a prisoner). In coordinate word-groups — all elements are equal (brother and sister).
If the word-group is used in the same function as one of its members — endocentric. Exocentric — are those that are used differently from either of its members.

Classifications of word groups:

1) full word groups: Phraseological units (set phrases, bound word groups)

2) the second classification is based on the way the headword is expressed. If we consider the relationship between the parts of a word group we'll find that there may be at least 3 groups of relations:

- coordinate relations coordinate word groups (groups of words, which have the same function (you and me), they are joined together either asyndetically or syndetically);

- subordinate relations subordinate word groups (there is always the head and an adjunct),

- predicative relations predicative word groups (word groups the parts of which are joined by predicative relations (syntactical complexes)).

The subordinate word groups are further classified from the point of view of how their headword is expressed:

- noun word groups

- adjectival word groups

- adverbial word groups

- verbal word groups

The problem here is the word order (the arrangement of elements): if we consider the substantive word groups in Russian the usual extension goes to the right (the right hand distribution) in English — very often to the left (the left hand distribution): Get your eyes tested appeal to motorists.

A predicative word group (= complexes which are not to be found in Russian) is a special kind of word group with predicative relations between the nominal and the verbal parts (not the general predication of the sentence, not the primary predication, but the relations between the doer and the action).

The syntactical complex is a construction which is not to be found in slavonic languages and many others while in the English language it is used highly extensively. There are 5 main types of complexes:

1) the Complex Object; .

2) the Complex Subject (is mostly used in newspaper style and business);

3) the For-phrase (the For-Complex, the Prepositional Complex) (not only the preposition "for" but also "to" and "on" can occur in this construction);

4) the Gerundial Complex;

5) the Absolute Nominative Participial Construction (is used in fiction and in technical description).

The complexes are further subdivided into bound (1, 2, 3, 4): they always function as an ingredient part of the sentence; and full (5): it is absolute, is not the I.C. of the sentence and is always an adverbial.

Since we consider only free word groups we should expect that since a free word group is considered full, it has no phraseological meaning, we may understand that the general meaning of the whole group is a sum of the parts which constitute it, but sometimes we can't say so: very often the meaning of the whole phrase depends on the position of the elements in relation to each other: a house dog — a dog house.

Notional phrases are grammatical unities made by a combination of two or more notional words. Notional phrase is the main unit of syntax (as well as the sentence). Words in an utterance form various syntagmatic connections with one another. Different combinations of nominal phrases denote complex phenomena and their properties and their interconnections.

Groupings of notional words fall into two opposite types:

1) Equipollent groupings, constituted by words related to one another on an equal rank Connection in such groupings is realized either with the help of conjunctions (syndetically) or without them (asyndetically). The constituents of these combinations form logically consecutive connections that are classed as coordinative. Alongside these exist equipollent connections of a non-consecutive type when the elements are unequal as to the type of nomination. This type is classed as cumulative.

2) The dominational connection, where one of the constituents is principle and the other is subordinate. The principle element is called kernel or head word and the subordinate is the adjunct, expansion. Dominational connections can be consecutive like equipollent. The predicative connection of words builds up the basic of the sentence. The completive way of connection of words is considered as subordinative on the ground that the outer syntactic status of the whole combination is determined by the kernel element "That woman was astonishingly beautiful." All the completive connections are subdivided into objective and qualifying connections. The former reflect the relation of the object to the process and are characterized as very close: "He remembered the man". The later connections are divided into attributive and adverbial: a boy of good character: to speak in a low voice.

Literature

1. M.Y.Bloch. A Course in Theoretical English Grammar / Теоретическая грамматика английского языка.

Questions

1. What is the "word group"?

2. What is the structure of word group?

3. What are 2 basic approaches to word groups?

4. What kinds of meaning do word groups have?

5. Describe structural classification.

6. Describe the classifications of word groups.

7. What are the main types of complexes?

8. What does the notional word mean?

9. Give the definition of equipollent groupings.

10. Give the definition of the dominational connection.

Exercises

1. Considering the relationship between the parts of a phrase name 3 groups of relations and illustrate them.

2. Analyze this part of prose from the point of view of the structure of its word groups:

As various aids to recovery were removed from him and he began to speak more, it was observed that his relationship to language was unusual. Ho mouthed. Not only did he clench his fists with the effort of speaking, he squinted. It seemed that a word was an object, a material object, round and smooth sometimes, a golf-ball of a thing that he could just about manage to get through his mouth, though it deformed his face in the passage. Some words were jagged and these became awful passages of pain and struggle that made the other children' laugh. Patience and silence seemed the greater part of his nature. Bit by bit he learnt to control the anguish of speaking until the golf-balls and jagged stones, the toads and jewels passed through his mouth with not much more than the normal effort.

3. Translate the following phraseological units paying attention to the types of relations between the words in the English and Russian variants:

1) birds of a feather flock together; 2) much will have more; 3) money doesn't grow on trees; 4) before one can say “Jack Robinson"; 5) put the cat among the pigeons; 6) lend your money and you lose your friend. 7) a stranger is a friend you have never met; 8) in fishing patience is the name of the game.

4. Give your own examples of 5 main types of complexes.

Vocabulary

groomer	[ˈgruːmər]	any of various officials of the royal household.
syntactic formula	[sɪnˈtæktɪk ˈfɔːmjʊlə]	синтаксическая структура словосочетания
syntactic patterns	[sɪnˈtæktɪk pætnz]	синтаксическая модель
intermediate unit	[ɪntəˈmiːdjət ˈjuːnɪt]	Промежуточное звено
initial	[ɪˈnɪʃəl]	изначальный
to be conveyed	[kənˈveɪ]	передаваться
the pattern of arrangement	[əˈreɪnʤmənt]	структура расположения
constituent	[kənˈstɪtjʊənt]	составляющее
To carry predication	[predɪˈkeɪʃn]	Несет в себе утверждение
dynamic force	[daɪˈnæmɪk fɔːs]	Действительное значение
subordinate	[səˈbɔːdnɪt]	второстепенный
coordinate	[kəʊˈɔːdɪneɪt]	сочинённый
endocentric	[ˈendəʊ ˈsentrɪk]	a construction in which the whole has the same syntactic function as the head
Exocentric	[ˈeksə ˈsentrɪk]	denoting or being a construction that has no explicit head
asyndetically		Упущение союзов из конструкций, в которых они обычно будут использоваться
syndetically		Связанный союзом
adjunct	[ˈæʤʌŋkt]	зависимое слово
Notional phrases		Знаменательные слова
Equipollent groupings		Равновесные группировки
Dominational connection		Доминирующая связь

Lecture 11. Sentence.

The sentence has always been considered the main and the highest unit of speech. The sentence is the only unit of speech capable of expressing a communication (суждение) - a more or less complete idea or thought.

The three aspects (structural, semantic, functional) lay the foundation for sentence classifications, based correspondingly on sentence structure, sentence meaning and purpose of communication. As a formally organized unit, the sentence possesses structure, which is understood to be a constructive integration of words (noun groups, verb groups, adjective groups, adverb groups) occupying certain syntactic positions (of subject, predicate, object, attribute, adverbial modifier) connected syntagmatically with syntactic relations (predicative, subordinate and coordinate).

Every sentence has several main features:

- a certain imtonation structure (depends on the aim of the communication, this structure, grammatical type...);

- a certain grammatical structure (the division into members of the sentence and their arrangement);

- is certain communicative structure (the theme-rheme structure);

Every sentence is characterized by predication. Predication refers the utterance to reality. Formally predication is expressed through the categories of tense and mood: the temporal and the modal characteristics of the sentence are the most important ingredient parts of predication and the most important characteristic features of the sentence.

There are several classifications of sentences based on several different criteria:

1. The meaning of the sentence / the aim of thought expressed / the communicative task. According to this criterion the sentences are subdivided into:

- declarative - the aim is just to give information e.g. You can’t rely on him. He came up and greeted me.

- interrogative - to sick information. Interrogative sentences of such types of questions as general, special, alternative and disjunctive: e.g. Shall I start from the very beginning? Where do you come from? Have you got a job or do you study? He’s away, isn’t he?

- imperative (incentive) - to urge somebody to do something (commands, advice, request) e.g. Don’t touch it. Look out. You try and do it.

- exclamatory sentences - expressing various emotions: e.g. What a lovely day! How wonderful. How fast you are driving!

2.Each of the three communicative types (except exclamation) can be exclamatory and non-exclamatory (expressively charged and not).

3. Another classification is based on the number of predicative groups / subject predicate clusters. Here we find:

- composite - correlative (the more... the more), compound and complex sentences.

- simple. The connection between the parts maybe syndetic or asyndetic.

4. One more classification is based on the use of secondary members: (extended non -(un)- extended). Extended, having some other parts besides subject and predicate, or unextended, with the only positions of subject and predicate.

5. According to the completeness of the structure we distinguish between complete and in-/non-complete -elliptical sentences.

6. The number of the main members, their use and the meaning of a possible doer of the action from the point of view of use of the primary is the basis of division of the sentences into:

- two-member sentences;

- one-member sentences;

7. Commonly, a definite syntactic pattern corresponds to a semantic structure which leads to the semantic classification of the sentence done on the basis of the meaning conveyed by the subject and on the basis of the meaning conveyed by the predicate. In accordance with the first factor, sentences are divided into the groups:

- Personal human (definite or indefinite): e.g. Someone has stolen his bike. Everybody felt happy. She works in a bank. Nobody will give me a hand;

- Personal non-human (animate or inanimate): e.g. Winter has come. The river flows into the sea;

- Impersonal factual: e.g. It is snowing heavily. It is fine. It was getting dark;

- Impersonal perceptional: e.g. It seems interesting. It tastes awful.

Reflecting the semantics of the predicate, sentences fall into such types:

- Actional indicating physically developed processes: e.g. He is doing well at school. They get to school by car;

- Statal indicating the state of the process: e.g. I respect intelligent people. He did not sleep well at night;

- Relationalindicating social or personal relationships between people: e.g. He is her brother. They report directly to the supervising manager.

Created by the speaker in the course of communication out of units of language, words in particular, a contextually bound sentence is made up, playing the function of a complete unit of speech, intonationally delimited and aimed at a certain purpose of communication.

Sentence structure

Since English is an analytical language the prevailing type of sentence is a two-member sentence, however in English there are also one-member sentences:

1) The nominating sentences:

- substantive sentences (The main part of it is a noun) Spring. Rain.

- abjectival (the main member is the adjective) Fine. Splendid. Excellent.

2) Imperative sentences (the main member of the sentence is a verb in the imperative mood): Do it!

3) Infinitive sentences

- the infinitive without the particle "to" which builds a rhetorical question: Why no go there?

- The infinitive with "to" which is expressively charged in which the infinitive may be used in any forms depending on the type of the action: To think of it! To have done such a thing!

4) Gerundial sentences (the main member of the sentence is gerund; such sentences are not very numerous. They are expressively charged and are usually in the negative forms): No talking! No smoking!

5) Sentence-words: oh! Alas! (interjections); yes! no! (particles); of course! (modal words); theoretically there are at least two approaches to such structures:

- such structures are complete one-member sentences;

- these are elliptical/incomplete sentences which are shortened transformations of a certain complete deep structure, thus: Do it now! < You do it now! ; Fine! < It's fine!

Impersonal Sentences:

Sentences, describing phenomena of nature: It’s raining! It’s dark!

Sentences, expressing time, distance: It’s 2 o’clock! It was Monday! It’s a five minutes’ walk from here!

Sentences, expressing a certain state of things: It’s all over with him.

Russian impersonal sentences one-member sentences and very numerous, in English impersonal sentences are two-member sentences with the impersonal “ it” and they are not numerous.

The communicative structure of the sentence

The communicative structure of the sentence reflects the meaning of the communication with the sentence carries. A sentence contains two common parts: the theme ( the known, the given) and the rheme ( the new information). Usually a sentence is a theme-rheme structure, but it is possible to have a rheme sentence(fine!).

Communicative structure of the sentence refers to the way the speaker structures the information, the way he identifies the relative importance of utterance parts. Usually the utterance consists of 2 parts:
the topic of discussion: something about which a statement is made (theme = topic)
the new information, which adds most to the process of communication (rheme = comment).
Some sentences contain only the rheme, they are monorhematic: It is getting dark. In the majority of sentences the constituents are either rhematic or thematic. There are also transitional elements. Sentences containing the theme and the rheme are called dirhematic. Thematic elements are indicated by the definite article, loose parenthesis, detached parts of the sentence; rhematic elements - by the indefinite article, particles, negations, emphatic constructions. But in the majority of sentences the rheme is also placed at the end, which is achieved by changing the syntactic structure of the sentence.

The main ways of marking the new (rheme) are the following:

The usage of the indefinite, the zero article: a man came in.

Constructions: there is, there are ( to be….. - …. There came…)

Word order: then came the day of our meeting.

A 3-member passive with the by-phrase when it is the center of the communication: this was done by my mother.

The use of the reflexive pronouns in the emphatic function: he did it himself;

Particles of emphatic precision: he alone didn’t know anything about it;

The emphatic “it-construction” (double-emphasis”): it was he, who told me the truth.

Transformations:

Splitting the subject group: a power station is being built, which…

The usage a phrase instead of a verb: extensive use was made of…

Transformation of the members of the sentence: the recent years saw/witnessed…