Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices (metonymy, metaphor, irony)

ü Expressive means (have greater degree of predictability) and stylistic devices (unexpected, arise in the context).

ü Different types of interaction of lexical meanings:

ü 1) interaction of dictionary and contextual meanings – metaphor, metonymy, irony

ü 2) interaction of logical and emotive meaning – epithet, oxymoron, similie

ü 3) interaction of primary and derivative meaning – zeugma, pun

ü Interaction of logical (common) and nominal meaning – antonomasia.

Interaction of primary dictionary and contextually imposed meanings

ü Words in context may acquire additional lexical meanings not fixed in dics, the so-called contextual meanings.

ü The contextual meaning will always depend on the dictionary meaning to a greater or lesser extent.

ü When we perceive two meanings of a word simultaneously, we are confronted with a stylistic device in which the two meanings interact.

ü The interaction or interplay between the primary dictionary meaning and a meaning which is imposed on the word by a micro-context may be maintained along different lines: identification – metaphor, substitution – metonymy, opposition – irony.

ü Metaphor

ü Acquires an additional meaning besides its dictionary one based on likeness between objects

ü Becomes a stylistic device when two different phenomena (things, events, ideas, actions) are simultaneously brought to mind by the imposition of some or all of the inherent properties of one object on the other which by nature is deprived of these properties.

ü It is one of the potent means of creating images.

ü Example of metaphors – Your friend George is just a big baby. You are my guardian angel.

ü Personafication

ü If a metaphor involves likeness between inanimate and animate objects, we deal with personification, as in the face of London, or the pain of the ocean. For example – The trees danced back and forth in the wind.

ü Classification according to the degree of unexpectedness:

ü Genuine, fresh, original metaphors (speech metaphors) Dear Nature is the kindest Mother still (Byron)

ü Trite or dead metaphors (language proper) floods of tears, cold war, white lie, leg of a table, to burn with desire.

ü Simple metaphor

ü Is confined to one image:

ü To beam welcome, to leap at an idea, to cool down (temperature), He was mad, I`ll chew on it (think)

ü Sustained or prolonged metaphor

ü Is made up of several images. The main image commonly referred to as the central image is developed by additional images.

ü We can refresh the almost dead metaphor and give it a second life by supplying the central image created by the metaphor with additional words bearing some reference to the main word.

ü Functions

ü Metaphor makes abstract ideas more concrete and precise

ü Reveals an emotional attitude of the addresser towards an object of speech

ü More convincing and argumentative because it appeals both to the mind and senses.

Lakoff and Johnson. Metaphors we live by.

We use 6 metaphors in English, it is a native language of subconscious mind. It holds a strong influence of persuasion.

Metonymy

ü Is based on a different type of relation between the dic. And contextual meanings, on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represente

ü Two objects (phenomena) has common grounds of existence in reality.

ü Variations

ü Effect for cause (Don`t get hot under the collar – don`t get angry)

ü Object for user or a concrete thing for an abstract notion (or associated institution) The crown, the press, the stage, the pen is mightier than the sword.

ü Place for institution (Whitehall isn`t saying anything).

ü Institution for people (The government is not answering the question)

ü Place for people (the city yawns over such news)

ü Place for event (Chernobyl changed attitudes to nuclear power)

ü Producer for product (She owns a Picasso)

ü An article of clothing for a person (he belongs to the top hat circle – higher society member).

ü An organ a human body for its function (He writes with a fine hand – means he has a good handwriting)

ü Substance for material for a thing made of it (the guests broke the china and stole the silver), plastic for credit card, lead for bullet.

ü Genuine metonymy

ü Unusual connections, power of imagination

ü He married into money and conversation.

ü The effect – cancerstick for a cigarette, good fortune – wealth

ü The object names its usage – to hand, to eye, to shoulder

ü The material names the object – paper, iron

ü Eponymy – the originator names the product.

ü A part names the whole, the container names the content, the leader names the party, the location names what`s there.

ü Irony

ü Is a stylistic device also based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings – dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings stand in opposition to each other.

ü Irony does not exist outside the context, which varies from the minimal – a word combination, to the context of a whole book

ü In speech the word containing the irony is strongly marked by intonation. It has an emphatic stress and is generally supplied with a special melody design.

ü Д. з – семинар based on the metonymy. Prepare some metaphors you use in your daily life, in music, in the movie.

Types of irony

Verbal - person says one thing and means the opposite.

Dramatic irony if unexpected by a character, it is

Situational irony – when what actually happens is the opposite of what is expected