The For-to-Infinitive Construction
good
is easy
It was impossible for smb. to do smth.
will be hard
necessary
The immensity of geologic time is hard for humans to perceive.
Людям тяжело воспринимать безграничность геологического времени.
| (too) | dynamic coarse | (enough) for smb. to do smth. |
For several days after the slide the road was too muddy for people to walk on.
В течение нескольких дней после оползня дорога была слишком грязной, чтобы люди могли ходить по ней.
Task 13. Translate the following sentences. State the For-to-Infinitive Construction.
1. There have been good reasons for people to brave the cold of Antarctica – to further research and search for new mineral sources.
2. The climatic changes necessary for a glacial age to occur are not so great as one might imagine.
3. There has not been enough time for weathering and erosion to alter significantly the effects of glaciation.
4. Oil has brought development and riches into desert regions where previously, there was little reason for anyone to choose to live there.
5. In summer, when the sun is overhead, central Asia gets very hot – it is too far inland for the sea to cool it down.
6. Drought accelerates desertification but it is not necessary for it to occur.
Task 14. Translate into Russian, comparing different functions of verbs in bold type.
1. Very violent storms appear in the tropics during the late summer and early autumn.
2. Deposition appears to be one of the main processes that modifies the sea bottom.
3. When lava appears at the surface of the earth it is known as magma.
4. Running water because of its almost universal distribution appears to be the most important erosion agent.
5. Laplace attempted to prove that all members of the solar system have common origin.
6. White limestone proved to be very soft.
7. Several methods have been used to determine the length of the post glacial time but most of them proved to be unreliable.
8. Cities first appeared at least 5,000 years ago.
9. Environment proves to be a dynamic system rather than a static, unchanging system.
10. The rate of movement of a hurricane appears to be entirely unrelated to either its size or the wind velocity within the system.
11. No attempts appear to have been made to evaluate the geologic effects on human occupation of this area.
12. Astronomers proved that there are many discrepancies in the Laplacian nebular hypothesis.
13. Extensive air masses such as appear on the daily weather maps originate when the atmosphere remains sufficiently at rest over an extensive area of uniform surface.
Task 15. Revision Translation.
I.
1. People long for the rains to come, to cool the air and help the rice crop to grow.
2. There is much still to learn about what lies under the polar ice.
3. The sedimentary rocks of the Alps are estimated to have covered an area of ocean floor about 500 km wide when they were deposited.
4. The polar wastes of Antarctica and the Arctic islands were some of the last areas on Earth to remain untouched by humans.
5. It is not worthwhile mining in polar regions because it costs too much to recover minerals in such harsh conditions.
6. If a major mountain chain lies astride a normal wind direction, the mountains force the air to rise and cool.
7. The interior plains between the Appalachians and the Rockies are considered to have evolved from mountain belts in the very distant geologic past.
8. In the 1960s nuclear power was expected to provide most of the additional electrical energy needed for the rest of the century.
9. Large-scale development is taking place in northern Alaska to extract oil and natural gas, even though the area is protected.
10. The Atacama is generally believed to have been predominantly dry for at least the last 40 million years.
11. The ground water of the Sahara is to be found mainly in seven major basins.
12. The present topography of the German-Polish lowland seems to be the result of the last glaciation.
13. If an aquifer is overlain by an impermeable stratum, it is likely to be under pressure that will cause the water to rise above the top of the aquifer when it is penetrated by a well.
14. Huge reservoirs of water to be studied and exploited are believed to be buried below the arid surface of the great Sahara desert.
15. Lateral movements of water which make up the greatest oceanic currents appear to be the result of the trade winds and prevailing westerlies.
16. To interpret geologic history of the earth is possible only in the light of the processes that are observed to be operating on the earth today.
17. Many changes in the temperature of great masses of ocean water are known to have been discovered by oceanographers.
18. Gravity causes weathered rock to move downhill.
19. Not enough water reaches the Aral Sea to maintain it, so, year by year, the lake grows smaller.
20. Where tectonic plates collide, the earth’s surface is compressed and buckles up to form mountains, known as “fold” mountains.
II.
1. Александрийский ученый Эратосфен (Eratosthenes) первым рассчитал размеры нашей планеты.
2. Геологические разрезы (geological sections) позволяют ученым составить наглядное представление об условиях залегания пород на глубине.
3. Вероятно, что разрушение озонового слоя было вызвано чрезмерным использованием фреонов.
4. Ученые полагают, что небулярная (nebular) гипотеза имеет слишком много противоречий.
5. Посчитано, что Альпы в момент формирования слагающих их пород простирались на 600-1200 км.
6. Повышение температуры вызывает таяние ледников.
7. М.Рид первым сформулировал гипотезу расширяющейся Земли в конце ХIХ века.
8. Расчеты показывают, что объем пыли, поднятой средней бурей, достигает 25 км3.
9. Известно, что скорость разрушительного воздействия текучих вод (flowing water) неодинакова для различных участков земной поверхности.
10. Гипотезу горизонтального дрейфа континентов (continental drift) А. Вегенер (Wegener) пытался обосновать палеонтологическими палеоклиматическими данными начала XX века. Однако некоторые из них оказались весьма спорными.
11. Говорят, что северное побережье Швеции поднялось на 900 футов.
12. Как известно, было сделано много попыток, чтобы добраться до Северного полюса.
13. В древности считали, что Земля является центром вселенной.
14. Предполагают, что замедление вращения Земли может быть связано с сокращением ее размеров. По подсчетам, сокращение радиуса Земли достигает 4,5 см в столетие.
15. Известно, что солнце – основной источник света и внешнего тепла на Земле.
16. Аэровизуальные наблюдения позволяют нам оперативно получать предварительные сведения о рельефе местности и характере обнаженности (exposure) горных пород.
17. Молтен и Чемберлин (Molten and Chamberlin) полагали, что Земля и другие планеты произошли от солнца.
18. Сообщают, что производство стали постоянно увеличивается.
19. Использование современных технологий позволило ученым получить более точные данные.
20. Древние астрономы считали, что на Марсе есть жизнь (to be inhabilited).
21. Современные спутники позволяют метеорологам предсказывать погоду с большой точностью.
22. Норвежец Руаль Амундсен первым достиг Южного полюса.
23. На Земле, по-видимому, не осталось необитаемых островов.
24. Правительство стимулирует производителей использовать современные очистительные технологии.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD
Task 1. Study the following.
Subjunctive Mood
Conditional Sentences
| Условие | Придаточное предложение | Главное предложение | Перевод | |||
| Real | If new methods for utilizing thermonuclear energy are devised, Если будут разработаны новые методы по использованию термоядерной энергии, Present Ind./Cont. | the energy reserves will be virtually unlimited. энергетические запасы будут практически безграничными. will + Ifn. |
|
Бы
не было бы ни облаков, ни дождей. would could + Inf. might 
would could + have + V3 might Task 2. Translate the following sentences into Russian. State types of conditional sentences.
1. If the magma feeding a volcano happens to be rich both in gas and silica, the eruption will be explosive.
2. If we care about the environment, we must do more than recycle our newspapers.
3. Soil water will begin to flow downslope if it is held up above a less permeable layer.
4. If all the water vapor in the atmosphere were condensed, sea level would go up by only about 3 сm.
5. If suddenly melted, the ice would raise sea level by perhaps 60 m, which would flood a large proportion of continental land areas.
6. If we could watch the development of a river cutting downward through rock of uniform hardness, we would see repeated in slow motion the events that mark the growth of a gully cut in the soft material of a hillside.
7. If the ice is sufficiently thick, gravity forces it to move slowly downhill.
8. If life exists on Mars, it is adapted to an environment that would soon destroy most earthly organisms.
9. If we could explain this greatest of all mass dyings, we might hold the key to understanding mass extinctions in general.
10. If we reconstruct the history of continental movements, we realize that a unique event occurred in the latest Permian (Пермский период).
11. It is not difficult to imagine what will happen when the increasing solar radiation gradually affects the earth.
12. A new ice age would be another catastrophe of the slow kind. This could occur during the next fifty thousand to one hundred thousand years. It would prevent the further rise of the sea level but it would cause a sharp worsening of the climate all over the earth.
13. If the rock salt breaks through the earth’s surface in a dry climate, it will ooze very slowly over the land surface and continue to move, like a glacier, but much more slowly.
14. If Jupiter’s mass were 30 times greater, the increased internal pressure would push the temperature to 20 million degrees C, and the result would be a miniature star.
15. If a nickel-iron meteorite of the required size were placed gently on the lunar surface, it would soon have migrated to the center of the moon.
16. If we could somehow build a star by heaping together sufficient matter of the right composition, it would start to shine of its own accord.
17. We might classify rocks according to their origin. This would be an excellent method if it could be applied to all rocks, but the sad fact is that we simply do not know how some rocks were formed.
18. If cooling of lava is fairly rapid and if the molten material is highly viscous, the resulting rock may consist of minute crystals or partly of crystals and partly of glass.
19. If cooling of molten material is extremely slow, mineral grains have an opportunity to grow large and a coarse-grained rock is formed.
20. If some of the atoms and molecules in the upper atmosphere are ionized by the action of solar ultraviolet light and X-rays, the resulting assembly of charged particles will behave precisely like a mirror to radio waves.
21. If the rate of recession of Niagara Falls (4.5 feet a year) had been maintained throughout its whole history, the 7-mile gorge would have been cut in 8,200 years.
22. If the earth were composed of the same material from the surface downward, it should be expected to show a nearly uniform change in density from the surface downward.
Task 3. Supply the necessary forms for the verbs given in brackets in the following sentences of real and unreal condition.
1. If the air (be warmed), it (rise) and (expand).
2. If the earth (be) flat, the sun (be) visible at all places on the earth’s surface at the same time.
3. If all the atmospheric moisture (be precipitated), it (create) a layer averaging only one inch in depth over the entire globe.
4. Most lakes and rivers (dry up), if they (depend) solely upon precipitation for their store water.
5. By reconstructing the now eroded folds, it is evident that rages (tower) 20,000 to 25,000 feet above the sea, if there had been no erosion.
6. If we could live on one of the other planets such as Mars, the Earth (appear) to us as a big star.
7. If permafrost (melt), groundwater flow (increase), causing mudflows and landslides.
8. If the axis of rotation (be) perpendicular to the plane of the orbit in which the earth revolves around the sun, day and night (be) of equal length at all places and at all seasons.
9. If the checking of the North Atlantic Drift (happen), Norway (become) a great deal colder and the population (have to) probably migrate southwards.
10. Luckily, the hurricane occurred at night. But if it (happen) during the day, there (be) thousands killed.
Task 4. Answer the questions in complete sentences.
I.
1. Could you secure another five specimens if the teacher asked you?
2. Who would you ask if you didn’t know the questions on hydrology?
3. How would you feel if you didn’t have a credit on meteorology?
4. What field of geography would you choose to work with in future if you had the choice?
II.
1. Could you have passed exams successfully if you had missed a lot of lessons?
2. If you had been late for this lesson, would you have apologized to the teacher?
3. If you had entered the University in 2005. When would you have graduated from it?
4. If you had lived thousands years ago, how would you have named our planet?
Task 5 Change the following sentences according to the model. Mind the Word Order!
Model:a) If there were no atmosphere the earth would be terribly hot in the day-time and cold at night.
b) Were there no atmosphere the earth would be terribly hot in the daytime and cold at night.
1. If the weather were fine this month the harvest should be exceptional this year.
2. If the professor had told the students they would have examined those specimens in the cave.
3. If there were no Gulf Stream the climate of Europe would become unbearably cold.
4. If the Earth were composed of the same material its density should vary with pressure.
5. If it were not volcanic eruptions there would be no oceans.
6. If the tourists had come earlier they would have seen the tide.
7. If there were no oceans the earth would have greater extremes of cold and heat than it has now.
Task 6. Translate the following conditional sentences into English.
1. Если бы ледниковый покров Земли растаял, то изменилось бы направление Гольфстрима. В Британии стало бы значительно холоднее, а ее климат напоминал бы климат Норвегии.
2. Если исчезнет какая-то часть неживой природы, не будет жизни на Земле.
3. Если бы удалось сложить все виды осадков, выпавших на поверхности Беларуси за год, то можно было бы покрыть ее территорию слоем воды в 60-70 см.
4. Если температура на поверхности Земли понизится, может произойти оледенение ее коры.
5. Если бы размеры нашей планеты значительно увеличились, то скорость ее вращения резко замедлилась бы, кроме того, изменилась бы величина силы тяжести.
6. Если бы он выучил все вопросы по химии, то сдал бы экзамен в зимнюю сессию без проблем.
7. Если бы круговорот воды (hydrological cycle) перестал действовать, на планете прекратились бы дожди, пересохли бы реки, исчезли бы подземные воды.
8. Если бы люди рациональнее использовали нефть, ее бы хватило на многие десятилетия.
9. Если бы поверхность Земли была бы гладкой, то она покрылась бы двухкилометровым слоем воды.
10. Если магма будет охлаждаться очень медленно, будут образовываться крупнозернистые структуры.
11. Если бы не было маленьких ручьев (streamlets), вода не могла бы стекать с полей.
12. Если бы спутники Юпитера находились далеко от планеты, их можно было бы увидеть без телескопа.
MODAL VERBS
Modal verbs + Perfect Infinitive
(выражение «вероятности», «предположения»)
Task 1. Study the following table. Compare the forms of the Infinitive after modal verbs. Pay attention to their translation.
| Модаль-ный глагол | Форма инфинитива | Значение модального глагола | Перевод |
| MUST | 1) She must be busy now. 2) She must be typing your article. 3) She must have been typing your article since morning. 4) She must have typed your article. 5) She must have been given the article only yesterday. | предположение, вероятность совершения действия (с большей долей уверенности) | 1) Она, должно быть, сейчас занята. 2) Она, по всей вероятности, печатает вашу статью. 3) Она, должно быть, печатает вашу статью с утра. 4) Она, по всей вероятности, уже напечатала вашу статью. 5) Вероятно, ей дали статью только вчера. |
| MAY | 1) She may be busy now. 2) She may be typing your article. 3) She may have been typing your article since morning. 4) She may have typed your article. 5) She may have been giventhe article only yesterday. | предположение с оттенком неуверенности (might – еще меньшая степень уверенности) | 1) Она, возможно, сейчас занята. 2) Она, может быть, печатает вашу статью. 3) Она, возможно, печатает вашу статью с утра. 4) Она, может быть, уже напечатала вашу статью. 5) Ей, возможно, дали статью только вчера. |
| CAN | 1) She can be busy tomorrow. 2) Can she be busy tomorrow? Can she have done it by herself? 3) You can’t have doneit! 4) You could have doneit yourself! | предположение удивление в вопросительных предложениях сомнение (в большой степени) в отрицательных предложениях возможность (в утвердительном предложении) сделать что-либо, но которая не реализовалась | 1) Она, возможно, будет занята завтра. 2) Неужели она будет занята завтра? Разве она сделала это сама? 3) Не может быть, чтобы вы это сделали! 4) Вы могли бы сделать это сами! |
| SHOULD | 1) I should have done it myself. 2) They should have repaired this instrument by now. | упрек, порицание, неодобрение (уже совершенных действий) предположение (меньшая степень уверенности по сравнению с must) | 1) Я должен был сделать это сам. (Мне следовало бы сделать это самому) 2) Наверное (вероятно), они уже отремонтировали этот прибор. |
Task 2. Translate the sentences paying attention to modal verbs followed by Perfect Infinitive.
I.
2. The friends must have been playing chess non-stop the whole day.
3. My watch stopped running. I think that the water might have ruined it.
4. The Browns must have failed to get in touch with us.
5. Janice’s number is still engaged. She must have been on the phone all morning.
6. I thought you must have found a close parking place since you always get here so early.
7. The student couldn’t take one of the courses because it may have been cut because of the budget.
8. The committee must have been informed of the coming changes.
9. Oh, no! You can’t have failed the exam again!
10. Can the child have been watching the telly all day long?
11. What can have happened to change him so much?
12. You should have warned him that the ice was dangerous.
II.
1. In Devonian times (some 350 million years ago) the day must have been about 22 hours long.
2. Strong evidence suggests that the Antarctic ice sheet may have been more extensive in the past.
3. Newton himself suggested that the solar system might have been formed from a thin cloud of gas and dust that slowly condensed under gravitational attraction.
4. It is obvious that the more deeply buried sediments must have suffered compaction and may have been reduced to perhaps half or less of their original thickness.
5. The time required to produce a particular ore deposit may have been centuries or thousands of years, and some deposits probably required hundreds of thousands or millions of years to build up.
6. During past earth history rocks must have been formed and some of them subsequently broken down physically or chemically.
7. By the 1890’s the physicists showed that the earth could not have been solid for more than a few million years, while geologists and biologists proved that the earth must have been solid for not less than a billion years.
8. One of the reasonable theories to explain the lunar glass is that it may have originated when meteoroids fell on the moon.
9. There is convincing evidence that some of the rocks now exposed (обнажать) at the surface once must have been several miles below.
10. By the time the earth had cooled a little the still hot waters must have contained a great number of carbon-hydrogen-oxygen-nitrogen compounds in solution.
11. Several billion years ago there must have been twice as much radioactivity in the earth’s crust as there is now.
12. According to the dust cloud hypothesis Earth must have originated from the sun by the accumulation of dust particles from the sun’s periphery.
13. Chemistry tells us that proteins could not have formed in the presence of much oxygen, although there is a great deal of oxygen on the earth today.
14. Astronomers believe that the sun and all its planets were formed from the same cloud of gas and dust, so the planets should have started out with fairly similar atmospheres.
15. Earth may have come into existence as a result of a cataclysmic explosion of a single mass of highly concentrated matter.
Task 3. Translate from Russian into English. Mind the use of modal verbs with Perfect Infinitive.
1. Должно быть, они уже сравнили результаты эксперимента с полученными ранее.
2. Неужели в этом регионе шли такие дожди, которые привели к значительным разрушениям?
3. Не может быть, чтобы этот минерал не был до сих пор идентифицирован.
4. Существует предположение, что жизнь, возможно, появилась на земле из внешнего космического пространства.
5. Возможно, в первые дни ранней земли были многочисленные штормы.
6. Луна, будучи меньше Земли, должно быть, охладилась гораздо быстрее.
7. Вероятно, большинство газов в современной атмосфере и большая часть воды были освобождены из недр Земли в результате вулканической деятельности.
8. Первые сформировавшиеся океаны, очевидно, были не такими солеными как сейчас.
9. Опарин был одним из первых ученых, кто предложил, что жизнь, должно быть, возникла в атмосфере.
10. В древних морях, по всей видимости, было образовано миллионы тонн сложных соединений.
11. Вся вода на Венере, возможно, приняла форму водяного пара благодаря высоким температурам из-за близкого расстояния от Солнца.
12. В масштабах галактики, наша Вселенная, должно быть, находилась в состоянии высокой степени турбулентности.
13. В соответствии с одной из гипотез, большая часть воды на Марсе, очевидно, долго оставалась в замерзшем состоянии вследствие очень низких температур.
Ex. 5. Read the following putting the verbs in brackets into the correct form. Be ready to speak on this topic.
Ferdinand Magellan (1) _____ (be) a Portuguese sailor who (2) _____ (want) to sail around the world. Emperor Charles V of Spain (3) _____ (give) him five ships and two hundred and sixty-five Spanish sailors. They (4) _____ (leave) Spain on 20th September, 1519 and (5) _____ (begin) their long and dangerous journey.
On the journey, Magellan (6) _____ (discover) the Pacific Ocean. Unfortunately, he and many of the sailors (7) _____ (die) in a battle on 27th April, 1521. After that, a Spanish sailor (8) _____ (take) control of the ships and (9) _____ (set off) to complete the voyage. Only one ship and sixteen men (10) _____ (survive) the journey. They (11) _____ (arrive) back in Spain on 6th September, 1522. They (12) _____ (be) the first men to sail around the world.
Ex. 3. Read the following putting the verbs in brackets into the correct form. Be ready to speak on this topic.
Do you think Mars 1. _______ (colonise) by humans one day? The planet Mars 2. _______ (know) as “the red planet”. The soil there is red and its surface 3. ______ (cover) in volcanoes. Until recently, it 4. _______ (believe) that nothing could live on Mars, but during a recent space mission, tests 5. ______ (carry out), and now it 6. ______ (think) that life on Mars might be possible one day. During the space mission, special equipment 7. ______ (use) to examine the planet. No form of life 8. ______ (find) yet, and so far the planet 9. ______ (consider) unsuitable for inhabitation. However, we 10. ____ (tell) by scientists that, by 2020, humans 11. ______ (send) to Mars, and that one day, special cities 12. _______ (build) so that we can live there. It 13. __________ (hope) that by 2150, Mars will be a wonderful place to live. If a colony 14. _________ (build) on Mars, would you like to live there?