Призупинення процесу викладання
| Now let us look more specifically at ... | Зараз розглянемо детальніше ... |
| We have now to trace... | Ми повинні простежити ... |
| We have now to observe... | Ми повинні вивчити ... |
| In this connection it should be noted that... | У зв’язку з цим необхідно відзначити, що … |
| It is at this point that we can say that... | Саме зараз можливо сказати, що ... |
| We must now briefly look at their common characteristics of ... | Ми повинні стисло розглянути загальні риси ... |
| To clarify the trends of events it is necessary to ... | Щоб пояснити перебіг подій, необхідно ... |
| We now turn to a more detailed examination of ... | Зараз ми звернемося до більш детального аналізу ... |
| It is perhaps appropriate at this point to say a word on ... | Зараз влучно сказати декілька слів про ... |
| We have now to consider a more important question... | Зараз потрібно розглянути важливе питання ... |
| We come here to the heart of the issue of ... | Тут ми підходимо до суті питання ... |
| It is in the hope of bringing some light on various aspects of ... we turn to ... | Сподіваючись висвітлити деякі аспекти … ми звертаємося до ... |
| Let us consider the following... | Розглянемо наступне ... |
| We now turn our attention to the problem of ... | Тепер звернемося до проблеми ... |
| We can say that... | Можливо сказати, що ... |
| Here it will be suffice to note that.. | Тут досить відзначити, що ... |
| It calls for digression... At this point a digression is called for... | Зараз необхідно відступити від ... |
| Before passing to the next question I would like to dwell on ... | Перш ніж перейти до наступного питання, ми хотіли б зупинитися на ... |
| It is in place here to mention... | Тут влучно зазначити ... |
| There is one more point I would like to touch on... | Мені хотілось би торкнутися ще одного питання ... |
| In this connection I would like to give some comment on ... | У зв’язку з цим ми хотіли б прокоментувати ... |
| Speaking of ... I would like to make some comment on ... | Кажучи про ..., ми хотіли б прокоментувати ... |
5. Уточнення, роз’яснення, доповнення
| A brief word must be said with respect to ... | Необхідно стисло висвітлити ... (зупинитися на, торкнутися) |
| To put the same thing in another form ... In other words ... | Іншими словами ... |
| It is at this point that we can say that ... | Зараз можливо сказати, що ... |
| Now we can generalize and say ... | Зараз можливо узагальнити і сказати ... |
| By this we imply ... By this we mean that ... | Ми маємо на увазі ... |
| What is meant is ... | Мається на увазі, що ... |
| What we are going to say does not mean that ... | Те, що ми збираємось сказати, не означає що ... |
| It is suffice to note ... | Досить відзначити ... |
| To be more precise ... | Точніше ... |
| To make it clear ... | Щоб з’ясувати ... |
| To clarify the point we must ... | Щоб з’ясувати цей момент, необхідно ... |
| This is not to say that ... | Ми не маємо на увазі ... |
| To elucidate the above mentioned point ... | Щоб пояснити вищезгадане положення (момент) ... |
| It requires some explanations ... | Це потребує деяких пояснень ... |
| We should make it clear that ... | Необхідно пояснити ... |
| It calls for some comment ... | Це потребує пояснення ... |
| A few words of comment are obviously necessary here ... | Тут абсолютно необхідно сказати декілька слів ... |
| We may also put it in a different way ... | Ми можемо висловити це іншим чином ... |
| This is not to say that ... | Це не означає, що ... |
| It should be added that ... | Необхідно додати, що ... |
| We may add that ... | Ми можемо додати, що ... |
| Other items could have been added ... | Можливо також навести інші фактори ... |
| Here it will be enough to add a few remarks upon ... | Тут досить додати декілька слів з приводу ... |
| In addition it may be useful to ... | До того ж, уявляється необхідним ... |
| Before we proceed, we should like to add a few words about... | Перш ніж продовжити, необхідно додати декілька слів про ... |
| It should be added in this connection... | У цьому зв’язку необхідно додати ... |
| It requires an additional remark ... | Це потребує на додаткове пояснювання ... |
| One more point to be made here is... | Торкнемось ще одного питання ... |
| The other thing that should be noted is... | Слід також відзначити, що … |
Привертання уваги
| It seems essential to emphasize that... | Уявляється можливим відзначити, що... |
| It is also important to show that... | Важливо також показати, що... |
| It is worth pointing out that... | Доцільно відзначити, що... |
| It should be noted that... | Необхідно відзначити... |
| We have to stress one basic point... It should also be emphasis on... | Необхідно підкреслити... |
| It was ... which attracted the notice of ... | Саме це привернуло увагу... |
| Very much has been already said... | Досить багато вже сказано... |
| We have dwelt at some length on ... | Ми детально зупинилися ... |
| We have repeatedly drawn attention to... | Ми неодноразово звертали увагу на ... |
| On the foregoing pages we have already said that... | Раніше вже було відзначено, що... |
| It is in... that the main interest of ... lies. | Саме на ... зосереджена головна увага. |
| It is especially noteworthy... | На особливу увагу заслуговує... |
| We shall special emphasis (stress) on... | Особливо відзначимо... |
V. ПЕРЕДАВАННЯ ЗНАНЬ
1. Виклад особистої точки зору
| We have come to accept that ... | Ми дійшли до того, що... |
| We bear in mind that... | Ми маємо на увазі... |
| We believe that... | Ми вважаємо, що... |
| As far ...is concerned As far as... is concerned... As far... As regards... | Що стосується... |
| It cannot be denied that... | Неможливо заперечувати, що... |
| It cannot be said that... | Не можна сказати, що... |
| It is (was) based on... | Це спиралося на ... |
| On the basis of ... it is possible to ... | На підставі ... можливо... |
| It laid the basis for... It laid the foundation for... | Це склало підставу... |
| It provides a basis for... | Це є підставою для... |
| All this allows us to consider... | Все це дозволяє нам розглядати... |
| It can be regarded as... | Це можливо розглядати як ... |
| It is necessary to note that... | Необхідно відзначити, що ... |
| It is possible to speak of ... | Можливо говорити про ... |
| It is possible to indicate that... | Можливо відзначити, що ... |
| In general it may be said that... | Взагалі, можливо сказати, що ... |
| We have reason to state that... | Маємо всі підстави сказати, що ... |
2. Ілюстрація теоретичних положень, екземпліфікація
| The chief aim of ... is to demonstrate... | Головною метою ... є показати ... |
| This may serve as a good example of... | Це є гарним прикладом ... |
| This example illustrates well enough... | Цей приклад досить добре ілюструє ... |
| A characteristic example of this is ... | Типовим прикладом є ... |
| This is illustrated by the following examples... | Це можливо проілюструвати наступними прикладами ... |
| It is another illustration of ... | Це є ще одним прикладом ... |
| All the figures are based on ... | Усі дані базуються на ... |
| It is not difficult to show that... | Неважко показати, що ... |
| It is possible to show the direct connection with... | Можливо показати прямий зв'язок з ... |
| What followed shows that... | Наступне показує, що ... |
| It is possible to show clearly... | Можливо чітко показати, що ... |
| A more profound examination reveals that... | Більш глибокий аналіз свідчить, що ... |
Висловлювання припущень
| If we assume... If it be assumed that... | Якщо припустити, що ... |
| It is possible to assume that ... We may assume that ... We can guess that... It may be suggested that... | Можливо припустити, що ... |
| It had previously been assumed that... | Існувала думка, що ... |
| There is no point in assuming that... | Ми не маємо підстав припускати, що ... |
| It might be natural to assume that... It might be naturally assumed that... | Природно було б припустити, що ... |
| There is some evidence to suggest that... | Є підстави вважати, що ... |
| It could be wrong to suppose that... | Було б невірно вважати, що ... |
| It would be mistaken however, to suppose that... | Було б помилковим вважати, що ... |
| There is (no) reason to suppose that... | Є всі підстави (немає підстав) вважати, що … |
| We have reason to believe that... | Ми маємо всі підстави вважати, що ... |
Пояснення
| This calls for further explanation ... | Це потребує подальшого пояснення ... |
| This explains much of what followed ... | Це, багато у чому, пояснює наступне ... |
| It is difficult to interpret ... | Важко інтерпретувати ... |
| We must account for... | Ми повинні пояснити ... |
| This explanation lacks conviction ... | Це пояснення є непереконливим ... |
| The explanation of ... will help to solve the problem of ... | Пояснення … дозволить вирішити питання про ... |
| The explanation lay not merely in ..., but in ... as well. | Пояснення полягає не тільки у ..., але й у ... |
| The points of difference would undoubtedly incline us to the view that... | Суперечності, без сумніву, призведуть до того, що ... |
| As distinct from ... it is clear that... | На відміну від ..., ясно, що ... |
| For many years no clear line was drawn between... | Тривалий час не було чіткої різниці між ... |
| It is becoming increasingly difficult to draw any clear line between... | Надзвичайно важко провести чітку межу між ... |
5. Аргументація
| It is now argued that … | Зараз стверджують, що … |
| It has been argued that … | Стверджувалося, що … |
| We may argue that... | Можливо стверджувати (довести), що … |
| There are no particular arguments to be advanced for... | Немає особливих аргументів на користь ... |
| The arguments for... are not conclusive. | Аргументи на користь … не є переконливими. |
| It is a mistake to argue that... | Помилковим є вважати, що ... |
| This statement cannot be allowed to pass unchallenged. | Це твердження неможливо залишити без уваги. |
6. Верифікація
| There is another proof that ... | Є ще один доказ тому, що … |
| It is true that … | Вірно, що … |
| It is not true that … | Невірно, що … |
| A careful examination of ... proves that... | Ретельний аналіз доводить, що … |
| For confirmation of ... we shall turn to ... | Для підтвердження ... ми звернемося до ... |
| This supports the concept of ... | Це підтверджує поняття … |
| The facts cannot be proved... | Неможливо підтвердити ці факти ... |
| This is proved by the fact ... | Це підтверджується фактом ... |
| It is far from being proved that... | Важко довести, що … |
| We have no clear proof of... | Ми не маємо чітких доказів … |
| We have no figures to prove that... | Ми не маємо даних, які підтверджують ... |
| We have sufficient proofs to... | Ми маємо достатньо доказів, щоб ... |
| It is not capable of proof...... | Це не можливо довести ... |
| The data bear witness ... | Дані свідчать про ... |
| For lack of data it is difficult to prove that... | Через відсутність даних важко довести ... |
7. Висловлювання впевненості, сумніву
| It is hardly acceptable that... | Це майже неприпустимо... |
| It is not sufficient to say that... | Недостатньо сказати, що... |
| We have sufficient ground to assume that... | Ми маємо серйозні підстави вважати, що... |
| There can be no doubt as to (that) ... There is no doubt that... | Не може бути сумніву щодо... |
| It can hardly be doubted that... There is little doubt that... | Навряд можливо сумніватися щодо... |
| There is not the least doubt that... | Немає жодного сумніву щодо... |
| One can safely say that... | Можливо впевнено сказати, що... |
| It is likely that... | Імовірно, що ... |
| It is likely, but not certain... | Скоріш за все, але й не точно... |
| Whether ...were known is uncertain... | Питання про те, чи були відомі..., не з’ясовано. |
| We may be sure that... | Ми можемо бути впевненими, що... |
| It is very doubted how... | Досить сумнівно... |
8. Висловлювання оцінки
| To assess the events we must... | Щоб дати оцінку явищам, ми повинні ... |
| The problem raised by...assumed a place of first importance... | Проблема, що її було висунуто ..., набула першочергового значення ... |
| It is impossible to gain an understanding of (events) without a clear appreciation of ... | Неможливо зрозуміти наступне явище, якщо не дати оцінку … |
| It is difficult to accept this reasoning... | З такою точкою зору важко погодитися ... |
| It is difficult to interpret the details of... | Дуже складно пояснити деталі ... |
| It is impossible to estimate... | Неможливо оцінити ... |
| The emphasis has been largely on... | Головна увага приділялася ... |
| One should not exaggerate that. | Не слід перебільшувати ... |
| Of special interest was... | Особливий інтерес викликав ... |
| It is important to remember that... | Важливо пам’ятати, що ... |
| What is important is... | Важливим є те, що ... |
| What is equally important is ... | Важливим є також ... |
| What is more important is... | Більш важливим є те, що ... |
| The important point is that... | Помітним є той факт, що ... |
| Here is lies the fundamental shortcoming of ... | У цьому полягає головний недолік ... |
| Herein lies the significance of ... | У цьому полягає значення ... |
| One of the outstanding features of ... is... | Однією з характерних рис ... є ... |
| A special significance attaches to ... | Особливого значення набуває … |
| What is significant is ... | Важливим є те, що … |
| The value of ... is slight... | Значення … є невеликим ... |
9. Викладання фактів
| In this work account should be taken of the following facts... | У цій праці необхідно врахувати наступні факти ... |
| The facts have shown that... | Факти довели, що ... |
| From these facts it follows that... | Ці факти доводять, що ... |
| These facts have been considered from various points of view... | Ці факти були розглянуті з різних точок зору ... |
| All these facts prove that... | Всі ці факти підтверджують, що ... |
| It is a well-known fact, and there is little to comment. | Це є досить відомим фактом, який не потребує коментарів. |
| The long established fact of ...is important for... | Цей факт щодо…, який давно встановлено, є важливим для … |
| The ascertained facts gave rise to ... | Факти, що їх встановлено, дають підстави для ... |
| It is not in accordance with the known facts that... | Це не відповідає дійсності ... |
| It rested on the fact that... | Це ґрунтується на тому факті, що … |
| Let us observe some interesting facts that show... | Розглянемо деякі факти, які свідчать ... |
| It is caused by the fact that... | Це викликано тим фактом, що ... |
| This fact strongly suggests that... | Цей факт дає підстави вважати, що ... |
| All the facts are in favour of the belief that... | Всі факти підтверджують думку про те, що ... |
| We can allude to the following facts. | Ми можемо послатися на наступні факти ... |
10. Встановлення зв’язків і відмінностей між існуючими фактами
| There is nothing to which it can be compared... | Це неможливо ні з чим порівняти ... |
| The comparative study of ...affords a strong presumption to say that... | Порівняльне дослідження ... дозволяє стверджувати, що ... |
| As compared to... | У порівнянні з ... |
| It may be compared to... | Це можливо порівняти з ... |
| It is not to be compared to... | Це не можливо порівняти з ... |
| Comparison of the data obtained has made it possible to ... | Порівняння отриманих даних дозволило ... |
| In any case a comparison with... shows that... | У будь-якому випадку порівняння з ... свідчить, що ... |
| Comparison of the results of ...with... has shown that... | Порівняння результатів ... показало, що ... |
| Contrary to accepted modern belief I think that... | На відміну від загальновизнаної сучасної точки зору ... |
| On the contrary... | Навпаки ... |
| Quite the contrary... | Як раз навпаки ... |
| It can be observed by contrast... | Це можливо розглядати порівняно з ... |
| This contrasts sharply with... | Це глибоко суперечить ... |
| This would seem to be a central contradiction of ... | Ймовірно, це є головним протиріччям ... |
| It runs counter to... | Це суперечить ... |
| The most important difference lies in... | Головна відмінність полягає у ... |
| There were also certain (important) differences in... | Були також (деякі) важливі відмінності між ... |
| There is а difference between... | Існують відмінності між ... |
| This differs greatly from... | Це багато у чому відрізняється від ... |
| In order to concentrate on the similarity of these facts it is necessary to ... | Щоб зосередитися на схожості цих фактів, необхідно ... |
| Let us note the similarities... | Розглянемо схожість між ... |
| Apart from... Unlike... | На відміну від ... |
11. Встановлення причин і наслідків
| There is more than one reason for... | Існує більш ніж одна причина ... |
| The main reason for ... was... | Головною причиною … було … |
| There were perfect convincing reasons why... | Існували досить важливі причини чому … |
| This may be due to a fundamental misconception of the reasons that... | Ймовірно, це було наслідком глибокого нерозуміння причин, які ... |
| It must be reckoned as the main causes of... | Це має вважатися головними причинами ... |
| If we are to trace the causes of ... we must... | Задля встановлення причин необхідно ... |
| This was the true reason for... | Це була справжня причина ... |
| The main reason for this lies in... The main reason is that... | Головною причиною цього є ... |
| It is one of the main reasons for... | Саме з цієї причини ... |
| Special factors have played a big part in... | Особливі фактори відіграють велику роль ... |
| It is a factor of some importance... | Це досить важливий фактор ... |
| It became henceforth a main factor in... | З цього часу ... це стало основним фактором ... |
| In reviewing the factors that led to... we find that... | Вивчаючи фактори, які призвели до ..., ми дізналися, що ... |
| Nevertheless, this factor must not be analysed in isolation... | Однак, цей фактор неможливо вивчати окремо (від інших факторів) ... |
12. Наведення характерних рис факторів, явищ
| The other thing which is characteristic of ... is... | Іншою рисою, характерною для ... є … |
| It may be noted here that it was a vital feature of the time... | Тут слід відзначити, що це було відмінною рисою часу … |
| We must note the essential features of... | Ми повинні відмітити основні риси ... |
| It was an essential feature of... | Це було основною рисою ... |
| We have now to trace the progress of ... | Ми повинні простежити розвиток ... |
| We may trace a decline of... | Ми можемо простежити ... |
| Now it is difficult to trace back the cause of... | Зараз важко простежити причини ... |
| It is impossible to trace in detail the... | Неможливо детально простежити ... |
| One characteristic feature was ... | Одна характерна риса полягала у ... |
| It is the main characteristic of... | Це є головною особливістю ... |
| It is necessary at this point to describe the main characteristics of... | Тут необхідно описати основні особливості ... |
| The most remarkable feature of ...is... | Найбільш визначною рисою ... є ... |
| Some of the common and distinctive features ... are... | Деякими загальними характерними рисами ... є … |
| It became a decisive feature of ... which marked it off sharply from... | Це стало вирішальною рисою … , яка чітко відокремлювала ... |
| The key feature of... is... | Головною рисою ... є ... |
VI. ПІДСУМКИ, ВИСНОВКИ, ПІДБИВАННЯ ПІДСУМКІВ.
| We must conclude that... | Підбиваючи підсумки, відзначимо ... |
| We cannot but conclude that... | Можливо зробити висновок ... |
| From this we can conclude that... | У результаті ми можемо зробити висновок, що ... |
| Perhaps it is most reasonable to conclude that... | Мабуть, доцільно закінчити ... |
| All this allows us to conclude that... | Все це дозволяє дійти до висновку ... |
| We must conclude that... | Необхідно зробити висновок … |
| Having described ... we must conclude in general that... | Після того як ми описали ..., ми повинні у загальних рисах зробити підсумки ... |
| It enables us to make a conclusion that... | Це підштовхує нас до висновку щодо ... |
| We thus arrived at the following conclusion... | Таким чином, ми дійшли до наступного висновку ... |
| On the basis of the work made we have come to the following conclusion... | Базуючись на роботі, що її було виконано, ми дійшли до наступного висновку ... |
| Thus, after carrying out a comparative description and analysis, it became possible to arrive at the following conclusions ... | Отже, після проведення порівняльного опису здається можливим зробити наступні висновки ... |
| These facts give rise to important conclusions... | Ці факти дають підґрунтя для того, щоб зробити важливі висновки ... |
| Here it is necessary to draw a conclusion... | Тут необхідно зробити висновок ... |
| Finally it can be observed... | У висновках можливо відзначити ... |
| We, thus, arrive at the following observation... | Отже, ми дійшли до наступного висновку ... |
| Finally mention should be made of... | У висновках необхідно згадати про ... |
| It appeared possible to define... | Стало можливим визначити (встановити) … |
| We can sum up ...as follows... | Ми можемо підвести підсумки … |
| (Finally) It can be summed up by saying that... | Підсумовуючи, можливо сказати, що ... |
| Summing up the results of our research we would like to say... | Підсумовуючи наше дослідження, ми хотіли б відзначити ... |
| We may now summarize by saying that... To summarize it is suggested that... We may now summarize... | Підсумовуючи, ми повинні сказати ... |
| It could be summarized in the following way... | Це можливо узагальнити наступним чином ... |
| The direct result of...was... | Безпосереднім результатом ... є ... |
| An important result of ... was... | Важливим результатом … є... |
| The main result of ... was... | Основним результатом ... є ... |
| The results of the work show that... | Результати роботи свідчать, що … |
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Приклади написання рефератів іноземною мовою
Реферат англійською мовою
THE AMERICAN VECTOR OF BRAZIL’S FOREIGN POLICY DURING THE PRESIDENCY OF DILMA ROUSSEFF
Key words: Brazilian-American relations, economic upturn, regional leader, foreign policy of Dilma Rousseff, mutually beneficial partnership, competition.
In the era of radical transformations new, more modern and competitive leaders are taking the place of conventional ones. Once being insignificant and even backward, developing countries are gradually occupying an important niche in the international division of labor. Former outsiders are gaining speed and prove that they have not yet demonstrated their potential in full force. We are observing the formation of a multipolar system accompanied with the upturn of the actors, which have not previously belonged to the circle of the global influence centers. Among them, we can see Brazil pretending to play a new role in the global political and economic processes. The trade, financial dynamics and international hyperactivity of the South American giant as well as its growing dominance not only in Latin America but in the world in general witness this fact.
The relevance of this topic is in the fact that we can trace the development of the relations between the USA, as a recognized leader in the international relations system, and Brazil, as an actor of a regional level, claiming to gain membership in the structures of the world political and economic order under present conditions in the age of globalization.
Today the Brazilian republic takes a special place on the international stage. According to its natural and human resources, level and rates of economic, scientific and technological development, comprehensive participation in the regional and global affairs it appears to be one of the leading states of the new world order, which continues to develop in the XXI century.
But this situation has manifested itself quite recently, becoming possible as a result of deep internal transformations and changes, which occurred in the last two decades. These comprehensive political and structural changes, providing the upturn and modernization of the country, became a basis of its active participation in the building of the modern architecture of international economic and financial relations. Brazil, which was recently called «the sleeping giant», has woken up both in the geopolitical and geo-economic sense, competing with the generally recognized developed states, such as the United States of America.
Moreover, the chosen topic should be of interest for Ukraine as the Brazilian republic can be not only our political ally but a potentially profitable trade partner. Its experience of democracy development, strengthening of its own economic potential and improvement of living standards is invaluable for the Ukrainian government, which is unable to overcome the effects of the comprehensive systemic crisis yet. Furthermore, examining the current state of Brazil, we can reveal the areas, which are the most prospective for cooperation, and predict their future development.
Therefore, the investigated problem is of a really great relevance at the moment, considering the difficult way that the Federative Republic of Brazil has had to pass in order to achieve the current level.
The research objectof our master’s thesis is the relations between the United States, as a political entity, which has the status of a global actor, and Brazil, as a political entity, which claims to achieve this status.
The subject of this research work is the American vector of Brazil’s foreign policy during the presidency of Dilma Rousseff.
The aim of the research is a comprehensive analysis of the sources, directions, structure and content of the Brazilian-American bilateral links.
For achieving the above set goals we are to investigate the following specific research objectives:
– to trace the process of the relations establishment and development between the USA and Brazil in the XIX – XXI centuries;
– to identify the impact of the Federative Republic of Brazil’s internal features on its foreign political position on the world stage;
– to point out and analyze the key areas of the American-Brazilian cooperation during the presidency of Dilma Rousseff;
– to disclose the expectations of each party from the bilateral cooperation;
– to determine the role and place of the American vector in Dilma Rousseff’s foreign policy;
– to forecast possible prospects of the further cooperation of the United States and Brazil.
The chronological frames of this study include the period from 2011 to 2014, scilicet the period of Dilma Rousseff’s presidency. This choice is due to the necessity to explore the current state of relations between the countries, which is connected with the claims of Brazil to join the circle of developed states.
At the same time, we need to point out more substantively some issues, namely: to analyze the origin and formation of the problem, as well as to forecast some consequences and prospects of such partnership, which forced the author to sometimes go beyond the defined chronological frames.
The geographical boundaries of the research cover the current territory of the Federative Republic of Brazil and the United States of America, as their bilateral relations are what our immediate attention is drawn to
As for the novelty of the work, it lies in the complex research of the problem; therefore the attention is paid not only to the object directly but to the circumstances of its formation. Indeed, we know that all the spheres of life are closely interconnected and even minor changes in one of them will certainly lead to changes in other areas. That is why a systematic study of this issue is very important for us. In addition, we pointed out the development of the relations between Brazil and the USA, which had progressed from constrained domination to equal competition, and found the specifics of cooperation between the state, which carries a recognized status of world leader, and the state, which only claims to receive it.
The theoretical significance of the research consists in the fact that on the basis of a large amount of the material analyzed and conclusions made it is possible to further elaborate and improve the theoretical principles concerning the Brazilian-American relations in the political, military, economic, trade and cultural fields, the features of their development and place on the regional and global arenas.
The applied significanceof the research is that the conclusions made during the study may be useful both for public and private organizations of our country involved in development of a foreign economic concept or doing business abroad, as understanding the specificity of relations in the Western Hemisphere will help to form an adequate assessment of Ukrainian trade prospects in this region.
Conclusions. One of the key features of the process of the new world order formation is transformation of relations between the most developed actors – conventional leaders, playing central roles on the international scene in the process of making key decisions, and those aspiring to achieve the status of superpowers through use of the following means: rapid economic growth, regional political, trade and financial influence, active participation in discussions on the international level, etc.
The logic of the relations development between the countries of Western Europe and the USA, on the one hand, and the world’s fast growing economies, on the other hand, allows to say that this is the type of cooperation that determines the structure of the world order being formed, and the vector of the relations development of these political entities will affect, by and large, the fact whether it will be partially modified or completely rebuilt.
The 2008 financial crisis added relevance and principal importance to this process, which stimulated a broad discussion not only about the future development of the United States as the pole responsible for many areas of global politics and economics, and of the conventional leaders of the western world but also about the prospects of fast-developing Asian and Latin America states. The statements, which emphasized that this was the US that caused the crisis occurrence, were repeatedly heard in diplomatic discourse of many countries. This trend allowed experts and analysts, not to mention the political elite of many developing states, to talk about the USA’s having lost its influence and hence about the displacement of the steady balance of power and authority. However, a gradual recovery from the crisis and Barack Obama’s numerous statements about revitalization not only of the country but also of the global economy indicate some hastiness of such conclusions. Of course, the recovery process is very difficult and laborious, but we have to admit that nowadays the United States have significant resources to overcome the crisis consequences and return their influence on the international scene. But the questions of how stable the economic upturn is and how resistant the financial structures of fast growing economies of the world are, are essentially open-ended.
The American-Brazilian relations, in this context, are of significant interest both for applied and theoretical studies. These countries have a very long and complicated history of bilateral relations. During the XIX-XX centuries Brazil was completely subordinated to the USA, which dictated not only domestic, trade and economic strategies but also a foreign policy course to it. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, an increasing dominance of the United States began to appear, but at the same time, some peripheral players, including the Brazilian republic, received a chance to take a substantial niche on the international scene.
Previous forced orientation to the States began to gradually change to categorical rejection of Washington diplomatic pressure and a desire to increase its own geostrategic potential. Thus, Brazil decided to pursue a more independent policy: continuing to remain the undeniable regional leader, the country started to diversify its international links as much as possible. Preservation and protection of the state in its current borders, its strengthening and development, prevention of conflicts on the continent and support of friendly but restrained relations with the USA became the basic principles of the Brazilian foreign policy.
In the second half of the 2000s there was a pressing necessity to review the strategies of relations of the United States with the Latin America countries, which started to leave their sphere of influence. The relations along the USA-Brazil line are one of the key elements of the process of forming a new type of cooperation in the hemisphere, affecting the configuration of the power and authority balance on the world stage.
The Brazilian republic, having an internally stable political system and sufficient supplies of economic resources, is one of the central entities of Latin America. In addition, it is getting increasingly involved in the international relations and aiming to raise its authority at the global level. So, its transformation into one of modern developed states of the hemisphere affects greatly the transformation of its cooperation with the States, which for several decades has been trying to develop such relations with Brazil, which would lead to the strengthening of influence and maintenance of the positions in the region but not to the emergence of an opponent represented by the South American giant.
Thus, the Brazilian-American relations had undergone a significant development from complete subordination to the policy of equal partnership, which was particularly visible under the presidency of Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva. Not only did Brazil turn into an independent geopolitical unit but also into a regional leader claiming to take a decent place on the international stage. So, this very economic prosperity definitively enabled the country to get out of the USA guardianship and conduct the independent policy, which corresponded to its national interests. To define their relations, the American and Brazilian governments introduced the term of «global partnership dialogue», which expresses the parties’ interests in cooperation but does not exclude divergence of views on some issues.
Since the moment Dilma Rousseff came to power, it is the relations between Brazil and the States that have undergone the most significant changes: the existing contradictions have begun to blur out gradually, there has been some progress in solving of several delicate issues; one might even say the rapprochement with the northern neighbor has taken place. In fact, the relations between the countries have become more constructive and meaningful. Pragmatism, as well as the desire to identify and take into account the specific interests of both parties have begun to dominate in the approaches to solving bilateral problems. The level of the partners’ interdependence cannot be compared in scale and number of priorities with any other Latin American state, with the exception of Mexico. They have managed to coordinate their positions and even joint actions on a set of political issues, foreign trade being included.
In general, the primary issues in relations between the largest economies of the Western Hemisphere are as follows:
– strengthening of democracy pillars and protection of human rights in the region;
– intensification of cooperation in the military field;
– priority development of economic cooperation between the two states, especially in the areas such as trade and investment;
– transition to strategic dialogue in the energy sector;
– cooperation to resolve contemporary global issues such as climate change and environmental protection;
– deepening of bilateral relations in the field of high technologies and innovations;
– cooperation in science as well as increase in the number of students and teachers exchanges in the field of higher education.
The United States of America are above all interested in deepening the bilateral economic relations with Brazil, based on mutual interests and preferences of the parties. Today the republic takes ninth place among the States’ partners (1,8% of the total trade in goods), in its turn, the USA entrenched on the second position (the first one has been held by China for already several years).
The total trade between the USA and Brazil, despite the political cooling, reached 133 billion dollars in 2013, with a positive balance of 26 billion dollars for the States. The export of American goods amounted to over 43 billion dollars, and the Brazilian imports totaled 32 billion dollars. As for services, their total volume accounted for 29 billion dollars, herewith the exports of the United States reached 22 billion dollars, but Brazil received only 7 billion dollars.
Thus, analyzing the current state of bilateral links between these parties, we can conclude that the central area of their cooperation is energetics, including the mining related to its non-traditional sources: the share of these two countries accounts for over 70% of ethanol production in the world. It affects not only mutual relations in the areas of trade, finances and investments but also the sphere of exchange of scientific and technical ideas.
The United States and Brazil should also continue to expand their investment cooperation, increasing the capacities both in the public and private sectors. The growth of competitiveness contributes to economic welfare and prosperity of the parties. A large number of initiatives and forums intended to improve the existing mechanisms and produce more advanced recommendations on doing business in both countries, and meetings at the highest, high and regional levels are evidence of importance and interest of business structures in the strengthening of the American-Brazilian cooperation.
Thus, it is obvious that economic issues play a key role in the relations between the parties. The bilateral trade between the countries almost tripled in the last decade: within the period from 2002 to 2012 the circulation of goods between the partners increased by 161% and the services movement grew by 336%. Without a doubt, we can say that even private companies contribute to the development of relations between the United States and Brazil in order to create new investment and export opportunities for entrepreneurs and jobs for workers.
The parties claim to improve the cooperation, but at the same time, realize that they will face unavoidable competition for influence in the region and positions on the world markets. The Brazilian-American relations are historically viewed through the prism of financial controversies and inability to accept a constructive participation in the free trade negotiations. However, it is obvious that economic issues play a key role in this partnership. Common interests and similar problems of the national economies serve as a driving force in the development of mutually beneficial links; a number of unresolved trade disputes and misunderstandings just restrict the deepening of these relations.
The same thing applies to the bilateral cooperation in the science, technology and innovation fields. Some researchers and officials consider the upturn of developing countries as a threat, fearing that it will damage the science intensive economy sectors of the United States. But at the same time, the majority of politicians recognize that the development of this field is a mutually beneficial business that creates new possibilities for technological cooperation.
Today, the cooperation between the United States and Brazil in the field of science and technology is very intense and productive. It mainly focuses on multilateral issues in which both countries are world leaders, namely: sustainable development, climate change, food security and alternative energy. It is worth noting that cultural, educational, scientific and technical scopes of cooperation between them were put on a constructive path by Dilma Rousseff and Barack Obama. Therefore, the processes of globalization and contemporary global problems have brought the bilateral relations of the two states up to an absolutely new level.
The bilateral Brazilian-American relations in the field of science, technologies and innovations are very strong, confirming a significant number of initiatives and programs between the parties. But, nevertheless, the states mainly focus on the educational sector. The United States and Brazil have a long history of sharing experience in this area, one of the examples being the bi-national Fulbright Commission, which has helped thousands of scientists to travel between the two countries. The cooperation also continues to thrive through initiatives such as «100 thousand strong in America» and «Science without Borders», which allow to create opportunities for new scientific links. American educational centers help Brazil to consult students on studying in the USA and carry out activities that contribute to admission of South American entrants to US higher educational institutions. The United States also closely cooperate with Brazilian colleagues to expand opportunities for learning English and increase professional qualification of Brazil’s teachers. In our opinion, these exchanges strengthen institutional partnership, promote development of human resources trained for challenges of the XXI century and cause a long-term economic growth of both parties.
Thus, we can see that the relations between the United States and Brazil from 2011 to 2014 were quite unstable. On the one hand, they improved due to the accession to power of Dilma Rousseff, who is more prone to compromises compared to her predecessor. On the other hand, all the achievements of recent years were instantly wiped out by the information about the comprehensive surveillance, which was contained in the documents published by Edward Snowden. Despite the gradual re-establishment of bilateral links, it would be difficult to restore lost confidence and opportunities. However, the Brazilian-American relations continue to remain one of the key elements of the policy of shaping a new cooperation type in the Western Hemisphere, affecting the configuration of the power balance on the world stage.
It was ascertained that this problem has a really great relevance at the moment as we can trace the development of relations between the USA, as a recognized leader in the international relations system, and Brazil, as an actor of a regional level, claiming to gain membership in the structures of the world political and economic order under present conditions in the age of globalization.
In the present thesis for the master’s degree the development and establishment of the problem under research, namely the American vector of Brazil’s foreign policy during the presidency of Dilma Rousseff, was ascertained in full. A number of propositions of the thesis may be of interest to research institutes and centers engaged in Latin American range of problems as well as it may be used for preparation of training manuals and lecture courses on international relations.
Реферат німецькою мовою
POLNISCHE DOKTRIN ÜBER „DEN ÖSTLICHEN VEKTOR“ DER MODERNEN AUßENPOLITIK DER EUROPÄISCHEN UNION
Schlüsselwörter: die Europäische Nachbarschaftspolitik, die Östliche Partnerschaft, der östliche Vektor, die Integration, die strategische Partnerschaft, Polen.
Die Aktualitätdes Forschungsthemas wird durch Bedeutung der Analyse vom polnischen Ansatz zum Verständnis der polnischen Beziehungen mit Ländern, die außerhalb der Europäischen Union bleiben. Ein weiterer wichtiger Aspekt der Aktualität ist die Notwendigkeit, politische Initiative zu forschern, die auf die Erweiterung der Beziehungen zwischen der EU und den Nachbarländern in Osteuropa ausgerichtet ist, was „die Östliche Partnerschaft“ ist.
Die polnische Republik steht nach dem Zusammenbruch des sozialistischen Lagers an der Spitze der politischen und wirtschaftlichen Transformation in Mittel- und Osteuropa und nimmt einen wichtigen Platz in dieser Region. Ein deutlicher Beweis dieses Sonderstatus war die Aufnahme von Polen in die erste Gruppe von Ländern im Ausbau der NATO und der EU in Osten und sein erfolgreicher Einstieg in die vollberechtigte Mitgliedschaft in diesen Strukturen.
Diese Funktion wird dadurch verstärkt, dass Polen eine führende Rolle in der östlichen Politik der EU spielt und sich dadurch von den anderen Ländern Mittel- und Osteuropas unterscheidet. Polen ist ein europäisches Land an der Grenze der Europäischen Union und der NATO, was eine besondere Art seiner Beziehungen mit den Ländern der ehemaligen Sowjetunion bedingt. Die Erfahrung der polnischen Republik kann als Beispiel für die Ukraine bei der Bildung der eigenen Regionalpolitik dienen und für die Realisierung der nationalen Interessen und der strategischen Ziele der Außenpolitik verwendet werden.
Das Objekt der Forschung ist die polnische Außenpolitik in Hinsicht auf Osteuropa und südlichen Kaukasus.
Der Gegenstand der Forschung ist die Doktrin über „den östlichen Vektor“ der modernen Außenpolitik der EU.
Das Ziel dieser Arbeit ist die Bedeutung des östlichen Vektors der EU-Außenpolitik auf Grund der Zusammenfassung und Auswertung von historischen Erfahrungen und neuen Tendenzen im Bereich der regionalen Integration in Europa und auf Grund der Studie von vaterländischen und ausländischen Forschungen und offiziellen Dokumente zu bestimmen.
Zur Erreichung des gestellten Ziels sind folgende Aufgaben zu lösen:
1) die Diskussionen und die wichtigsten Initiativen für die Beziehungen der Europäischen Union mit ihren östlichen Nachbarländern von ihrer Entstehung und bis 2008 auszuwerten;
2) „den östlichen Vektor“ in der Außenpolitik der Europäischen Union, die Entwicklungsperspektiven der polnisch-schwedischen Initiative von «Östlicher Partnerschaft» zu analysieren;
3) den Prozess der Entstehung der modernen Konzeption der polnischen Ostpolitik zu forschern;
4) die Wirkung von Polen auf die Beziehung mit seinen östlichen Nachbarländern (die Ukraine, Belorussland, Moldowa), auf die Entwicklung der Europäischen Nachbarschaftspolitik und den östlichen Vektor zu bestimmen.
Die chronologischen Rahmen der Forschung umfassen den Zeitraum von 1989 bis November 2013. Die Untergrenze wird durch Wiederherstellung der Souveränität des polnischen Staates im Jahr 1989 bedingt und die obere zeitliche Grenze bestimmt der Samit der Östlichen Partnerschaft in Vilnius am 28-29 November 2013.
Die geographischen Genzen der Forschung erstrecken sich auf das Territorium der EU-Mitgliedstaaten und auf die Regionen, die „die Europäische Nachbarschaftspolitik“ und die Initiative „Östliche Partnerschaft“ umfassen: Osteuropa, Nordafrika, Naher Osten, Südkaukasus (Georgien, Armenien und Aserbaidshan), Russische Föderation, die Türkei.
Die wissenschaftliche Neuheit der Forschung bestimmt derzeitiger Grad ihrer Gegenwart. Aufgrund der Analyse einer Reihe von polnischen, ukrainischen und russischen Quellen, werden die Merkmale und Perspektiven der Aktivitätenentwicklung von Polen in Mittel- und Osteuropa betrachtet.
Die Forschung ermöglicht ein umfassendes Verständnis der Bildung der EU-Außenpolitik gegenüber Osteuropa. Es wurde die EU-Außenpolitik durch Prisma „des östlichen Vektors“, „der Europäischen Nachbarschaftspolitik“ und „der Östlichen Partnerschaft“ erforscht.
Die praktische Bedeutung besteht darin, dass der Inhalt, die wichtigen Grundlagen und die Schlußfolgerungen dieser Forschung für weitere Forschungen des östlichen Vektors der modernen Außenpolitik der Europäischen Union verwendet werden können.
Das erste Kapitel „Stand des wissenschaftlichen Forschungsproblems, die Quellenbasis und Forschungsmethodik“ ist dem Stand der wissenschaftlichen Forschungsthemen, der Quellen und der Literatur über das Problem der Forschung, der Bestimmung von methodologischen Grundlagen gewidmet.
Im zweiten Teil – „Die Rolle von Polen bei der Bildung des östlichen Vektors in der EU-Außenpolitik“ werden die Konzeption der modernen polnischen Ostpolitik, die Umsetzung und Entwicklung der Europäischen Nachbarschaftspolitik, die Bestimmung des östlichen Vektors in der Außenpolitik der Europäischen Union analysiert.
Im dritten Kapitel „Praktische Umsetzung der polnischen Außenpolitik in der EU“ stellen wir uns die Zusammenarbeit der polnischen Republik mit der Ukraine, Belorussland, Moldowa fest.
In den Schlußfolgerungenwerden die wichtigsten Grundlagen und Resultate der Forschungsarbeit zusammengefasst.
Es wurde festgestellt, dass Polen seit 1989 als europäischer Rechtsanwalt für die östlichen Nachbarländer verhandelt. Diese Position folgte der Tatsache, dass nicht nur die politische Elite, sondern auch die polnische Gesellschaft in der Demokratisierung eine bessere Umsetzung von nationalen Interessen und den Nutzen für Europa gesehen haben. Das Ziel von Polen war die Verbesserung der Konzeption der Europäischen Nachbarschaftspolitik. Politische Zusammenarbeit und wirtschaftliche Integration in die Östliche Partnerschaft erleichtern die Anpassung zu EU-Standards und schaffen einen Rahmen für weitere wirkungsvolle Entwicklungszusammenarbeit, positive wirtschaftliche und soziale Zukunftsperspektive der Länder in Mittel- und Osteuropa.
Реферат французькою мовою
LES ETATS-UNIS ET LE ROYAUME-UNI DES ACTIVITES DE MAINTIEN DE LA PAIX (L’EXTREMITE DU XX – DEBUT DU XXI SIECLE)
Mots-clés: maintien de la paix, les relations américano-britannique, le «relations spéciales», les opérations de maintien de la paix, l'alliance, les relations bilatérales, le partenariat.
L'actualité de ce travail.Les changements dans la politique mondiale ont acquis dans un monde post-bipolaire au début du XXI siécle aprés la nouvelle dimension de la montée du terrorisme international par des groupes extrémistes. Dans les conditions modernes de l'interdépendance des problémes de maintien de la paix internationale ont un rôle particulier. Conflits allumés а l'un des principaux facteurs de l'instabilité sur la Terre. Les conflits modernes sont dangereux non seulement pour les parties au conflit, mais aussi pour la communauté mondiale tout entiére.
Aprés la fin de la «guerre froide» et la formation du systéme moderne des relations internationales, les États-Unis et le Royaume-Uni sont responsables de l'état actuel de la sécurité internationale. Explorer la relation des principaux pays du monde est une tache scientifique important, en particulier vers les États-Unis et le Royaume-Uni - les pays qui jouent un rôle important dans les relations internationales et les dirigeants des démocraties occidentales modernes, garants de l'ordre mondial. Les États-Unis d'Amérique et la Grande-Bretagne ont d'être les partenaires étrangers durant une grande partie du XX siécle. Ils maintiennent encore des actions diplomatiques et militaires de l'autre et mener des opérations de maintien de la paix conjointes.
La recherche des activités de maintien de la paix anglo-américaine (la fin du XX siécle – début du XXI siécle) contribue а une meilleure compréhension et l'analyse des «relations spéciales» générées entre les pays. En raison du fait que, а la fin de la «guerre froide», ils confrontés а la tache de former le systéme de sécurité internationale qui permettrait d'assurer la stabilité de l'ordre mondial et de relever efficacement les nouveaux défis et menaces. C'est la raison pour laquelle nous devons prêter attention а la société des Etats-Unis et la Grande-Bretagne, qui s'efforcent de créer un plan de sécurité de développement politique, économique et culturel.
Il convient de noter que de nos jours une place particuliére dans la politique étrangére et de ses priorités de l'Ukraine détient l