The past of could is could have. We use could have to say that we had the ability to do smth but didn’t do it.

4. We often use can + verb in place of the simple present with the verbs of perception.

I can see a bird = I see.

Strong doubt or astonishment = Сильний сумнів чи здивування.

Can|could he + inf do smth? Неужели, разве.

He can’t + inf do smth? Не может быть, вряд ли.

MAY

We use may|might:

1. To ask a permission|to give a permission.

2. To talk about possible happenings in the future (возможно, может быть).

I may go to Italy.

3. To talk about possible plans.

4. Reproach (only might) (мог бы) Докір.

Uncertainty, supposition implying strong doubt. Невизначеність, припущення має на увазі сильний сумнів.

23. Modal verbs (will, shall, would, need, dare). Meaning and use.

Shall is never a purely modal verb. It always combines its modal meaning with the function of an auxiliary expressing futurity. Поэднує модальність і вираження майбутнього часу.

It expresses determination on the part of the speaker, i. e. compulsion ororder, threat or warning, promise. Він висловлює рішучість з боку мовця, обов'язок або порядок, погрозу або попередження, обіцянку.

As a rule shall as a modal verb is not translated into Russian, its meaning is rendered by emphatic intonation. Його значення надають рішучий інтонації.

1. Shall expresses volition(волевой акт) with the first person subject in formal style.

We shall uphold the wishes of the people. — Мы поддержим желания народа.

2. In interrogative sentences shall is used with the first and third persons to inquire after the wish of the person addressed. У питальних реченнях використовується з 1 і 3 особами, щоб дізнатися про бажання людини.

Shall he go there? (Do you want him to go there?) — Идти ему туда?

It is also used for making suggestions about shared activities.

What shall we do this evening? Shall we go to the theatre?

3. Compulsion (принуждение) or strict order. In this meaning it is always used with the 2nd and 3rd person and has a strong stress.

By God, you shall do nothing of the sort.- Клянусь богом, вы этого не сделаете.

4. Threat (угроза) or warning. In this meaning it is also used with the second and third persons and with a weak stress.

"You shall never see me again!" - Вы никогда меня больше не увидите!

5. Promise. It is also used with the second and third persons and with a weak stress.

You shall not be punished. - Тебя не накажут.

Will.

Willis hardly ever a purely modal verb. It generally combines its modal meaning with the function of an auxiliary expressing futurity. Поєднує в собі модальне значення з функцією допоміжного виражає майбуття.

The modal verb willexpresses volition, intention on the part of the speaker, or insistence. Виражає волю, намір з боку мовця, або намагання.

It is used with all persons but mostly with the first person.

Tell Mr. Osborne it is a cowardly letter, sir, a cowardly letter — I will notanswer it. (Thackeray)

Скажите мистеру Осборну, что это трусливое письмо, сэр, трусливое; я на него не отвечу.

Very often willis used after the conjunction ifin conditional clauses where it retains its modal meaning, that of volition.

You may laugh if you will but I was sure I should see her there. (E. Bronte)

Можете смеяться, если хотите, но я был уверен, что встречу ее там.

The modal verb willis used in polite requests. Ввічливі прохання.

Willyou have a cup of tea?Willyou give me a piece of bread, for I am very hungry?

2.Persistence referring to the present or to the future. Стійке посилання на сьогодення або майбутнє.

"Don't tell me." "But I will tell you," repeated Sikes. (Dickens)

«He говорите мне про это». «А я все равно скажу», — повторил Сайке.

It is also used in speaking about lifeless things when the speaker is annoyed at something and speaks about a thing or a phenomenon of nature as if it possessed a will of its own (there is an element of personification here).

Він також використовується кажучи про неживих речей, коли спікер роздратований на щось і говорить про речі або явища природи, як ніби мають власну волю

It's no use trying to open the door, it will notopen.

Нечего стараться открыть эту дверь — она все равно не откроется

Would

Wouldwas originally the past tense of will. Wouldhas preserved those of will.

Thus it expresses volition, persistence referring to the past. Висловлює волю, наполегливість, посилаючись на минуле.

1.Volition.

In this meaning it is mostly used in negative sentences.

She was going away and would notsay where she was going. (Dreiser)

Она уезжала и не хотела сказать, куда едет.

2.Persistence. Стійкість.

I asked him not to bang the door, but he would do it.

Я просил его не хлопать дверью, а он все продолжал хлопать.

Dare.

Daremeans 'to have the courage (or impertinence) to do something'. «мати мужність (чи нахабства) зробити щось".

In the negative it denotes the lack of courage to do something.У негативі воно позначає відсутність мужності, щоб зробити щось.

"How dareyou ask the little Kelveys into the courtyard".

Darehas two forms — dare for the Present and daredfor the Past.

Didhe dareto strikeme when I was down? (E. Bronte)

Hedid not dareto meethis uncle.(Kruisinga)

Sometimes daretakes the auxiliary but is followed by the bare infinitive.

You know you didn't daregivethe order to charge the bridge until you saw us on the other side. (Shaw)

Dareis mostly used in interrogative and negative sentences.

However, we often come across I dare say which has become a stock phrase and acquired a new meaning 'I suppose'. Dareis used only with the Indefinite Infinitive.

Need.

Need expresses necessity. It is mostly used in negative and interrogative sentences.

You needn'tbe in such a fright. Take my arm. (Shaw)

He надо так бояться. Возьмите меня под руку.

N o t e .—When need is used in the meaning of 'to be in want of' it is treated as a normal verb.

He needs a new pair of shoes.

Need has only one tense form — the Present. In the same way asdare, need is used as a normal and as an anomalous verb.

One needto be careful. (Zandvoort)

He did not needto be toldtwice. (Zandvoort)

Why need he bother us? (Kruisinga)

I am here. You needn'tbe afraid. (Greene)

I need hardly say I would do anything in the world to ensure Gwendolen's happiness. (Wilde)

Need is used both with the Indefinite and with the Perfect Infinitive.

I suppose I needn'thave madethat observation. (Pinero)

Пожалуй, не к чему мне было делать такое замечание.

24. Modal verbs (must, should, ought to, to be to, to have to). Meaning and use.

Must.

The verb musthas only one form. The expressions to have toand to be obliged to,which have the same meaning, can be used to supply the missing tense forms of the verbmust.

And now I must go back to my social duties. (Voynich)

I felt that I had to have the air.(De la Roche)

Baring, because of the type of work in which he was engaged, had been obliged to forego making friends. (Wilson)

Mustexpresses obligation, necessity, an urgent command or prohibition, and a supposition bordering on assurance. Bисловлює зобов'язання, необхідність, терміновy команду або заборонy, і припущення, що межує з упевненістю.

1.Obligation, necessity.зобов'язання, необхідність

(a) due tocircumstances (у зв'язку з обставинами):

He must write. He must earn money. (London)

The absence of necessity is expressed by need not:

Must I go there to-morrow? Yes, you must. No, you needn't,