Periods in the history of English

The first period, which may be termed Early Old English, lasts from the West Germanic invasion of Britain till the beginning of writing, that is from the 5^th to the close of the 7^th c. It is the stage of the tribal dialects of the West Germanic invaders, which were gradually losing contacts with the related continental tongues. The tribal dialects were used for oral communication, there being no written form of English.

The secondhistoricalperiod extends from the 8^th c. till the end of the 11^th. The English language of that time is referred to as Old English. The tribal dialects gradually changed into local or regional dialects. Towards the end of the period the differences between the dialects grew and their relative position altered(изменяться). They were probably equal as a medium of oral communication, while in the sphere of writing one of the dialects, West Saxon, had gained supremacy (превосходство)over the other dialects. The language of this period is usually described synchronically and is treated as a more or less stable system.

The third period, known as Early Middle English, starts after 1066, the year of the Norman Conquest, and covers the 12^th, 13^th and half of the 14^th c. It was the stage of the greatest dialectal divergence caused by the feudal system and by foreign influences – Scandinavian and French. The dialectal division of present-day English owes its origin to this period of history. Under Norman rule the official language in England was French, or rather its variety called Anglo-French or Anglo-Norman; it was also the dominant language of literature.

The fourth period – from the later 14^th c. till the end of the 15^th – embraces (в объятиях)the age of Chaucer, the greatest English medieval writer and forerunner (предвестник)of the English Renaissance. We may call it Late or Classical Middle English. It was the time of the restoration of English to the position of the state and literary language and the time of literary flourishing(процветание). The main dialect used in writing and literature was the mixed dialect of London. The literary authority of other dialects was gradually overshadowed by the prestige of the London written language.

The fifth period is called Early New English, lasted from the introduction of printing to the age of Shakespeare. The first printed book in English was published by William Caxton in 1475. It was a time of great historical consequence: under the growing capitalist system the country became economically and politically unified. Caxton’s English of the printed books was a sort of bridge between the London literary English of the ME period and the language of the Literary Renaissance. This period was also a time of sweeping (отметания)changes at all levels, in the first place lexical and phonetic. The growth of the vocabulary was a natural reflection of the progress of culture in the new, bourgeois society.

The sixth period extends from the mid-17^th c. to the close of the 18^th c. In the history of the language it is often called “the age of normalization and correctness”, in the history of literature – the “neoclassical” age. It is essential that during the 18^th c. literary English differentiated into distinct styles, which is a property of a mature literary language. The 18^th c. has been called the period of “fixing the pronunciation”. The great sound shifts were over and pronunciation was being stabilized. Word usage and grammatical construction were subjected to restriction and normalization.

The English language of the 19^th and 20^th c. represents the seventh period in the history of English. It is called Late New English or Modern English. The classical language of literature was strictly distinguished from the local dialects and the dialects of lower social rank. The dialects were used in oral communication and, as a rule, had no literary tradition. The 20^th c. witnessed (свидетельствует о значительном смешении)considerable intermixture of dialects. The local dialects were retreated(отступать) and displaced by Standard English. The English vocabulary has grown on an unprecedented scale reflecting the rapid progress of technology, science and culture and other multiple changes in all spheres of man’s activity.

Rise of the London dialect

The Norman Conquest was not only a great event in British political history but also the greatest single event in the history of the English language. The Norman Conquerors of England had originally come from Scandinavia. First they had seized(завладели) the valley of the Seine and settled in what is known as Normandy. They were swiftly assimilated by the French and in the 11^th c. came to Britain as French speakers. Their tongue in Britain is often referred to as “Anglo-French” or “Anglo-Norman”, but may just as well be called French. The most important consequence of Norman domination in Britain is to be seen in the wide use of the French language in many spheres of life. For almost three hundred years French was the official language of administration: it was the language of the king’s court, the church, the army and others. The intellectual life, literature and education were in the hands of French-speaking people. For all(несмотря на) that, England never stopped being an English-speaking country. The bulk of the population spoke their own tongue and looked upon(смотреть на- считатьфранцузов за иностранцев) French as foreign and hostile(враг, враждебный). At first two languages existed side by side without mingling(без смешания). Then, slowly and quietly, they began to penetrate each other. The three hundred years of the domination of French affected English more than any other foreign influence before or after. The early French borrowings reflect accurately(точно) the spheres of Norman influence upon(=on) English life; later borrowings can be attributed(приписаны) to the continued(продолжительный) cultural, economic and political contacts between the countries.

In the late 14^th century English was reestablished as the official language of Britain, the literary language of English dates from the 14^th century. The 300 years of domination of the French language affected the English language in many spheres. The greater influence of French in the high ranks(ранг в обществе) of society led to great differences in original and social dialects. A more specific influence was made on the alphabet and spelling. From the phonetic structure of the language, especially word accentuation(манера произношения) was affected by the numerous numbers of French borrowings, which were adopted by the English language. However the influence of French affected the grammatical structure of the language.

The dialect division which evolved(развивалось) in Early ME was on the whole preserved in later periods. In the 14^th and 15^th c. we find the same grouping of local dialects: the Southern group, including Kentish and the South-Western dialects (the South-Western group was a continuation of the OE Saxon dialects), the Midland or Central (corresponding to the OE Mercian dialect – is divided into West Midland and East Midland as two main areas) and the Northern group (had developed from OE Northumbrian). And yet the relations between them were changing. The most important event in the changing linguistic situation was the rise of the London dialect as the prevalent written form of language. The history of the London dialect reveals(обнаруживать, раскрываться) the sources of the literary language in Late ME and also the main source and basis of the Literary Standard, both in its written and spoken forms. The Early ME written records made in London – beginning with the PROCLAMATION of 1258 – show that the dialect of London was fundamentally East Saxon. Later records indicate that the speech of London was becoming more fixed, with East Midland features gradually prevailing over the Southern features.

In the 14^th century English revived(возрождаться) as the official language. The 4 main dialects: Northern, Southern, West and East were struggling for supremacy(превосходство) but none of them predominated. Literary English originated from the language of the 14^th century. The London dialect had developed from several local dialects. The history of the London reveal(разоблачать) source of the literary English in Mid. English period. The London dialect was the main source of the national English language in its written and spoken forms. The history of London reaches back(уходит в прошлое) to Roman days. In OE times London was the biggest town in Britain also the capital of Wessex.

In 1018 1/8 of all Danegeld(сбора во время датского правления, собранного по стране) collected from all over the country came from London. The capital was transferred to London before the Norman Conquest. The early ME records were made in London in 1258. It was the London proclamation(провозглашение). These records show that London dialects came from the East Saxon dialects, from the South-Western dialects of the Southern groups.

The speech of London became more mixed with East-Middle features. They prevailed gradually over the Southern features. That explained that the mixed character of London speech is based in the history of the London population. In the 12^th and 14^th centuries the inhabitants of London came from the neighboring South-Western districts. In the middle of 14^th century London was practically depopulated due to the Black Death(черная смерть - чума). About of 1/3 of the population of Britain died. The biggest proportion of death came to London. But in 1377 London had already many inhabitants. Most of arrivals came from the East Midland and the other districts. It was wealthy resettlement of medieval Britain(средневековый). In the late 14^th century the speech of the Londoners was brought closer to the East Midland dialect.

East Midland dialect

From the 14^th century a large number of the official and literary papers written in London dialect showed a large number of Midland dialect features. The London dialect becomes East Midland in character. The flourishing of literature in the second half of the 14^th century testifies(торжественно устанавливает) the establishment of London dialect as the literary language. Some authors wrote their works by means of the local dialects which differed from the London dialect. Other author represented various combinations of London and original dialects. Towards the end of the century more and more works were written in the London dialect. It became the most common form of language. One of the most prominent authors was John de Trevisa.In 1332 he translated 7 books of the World History from Latin to South-Western dialects of English. Trevisa's manner of speech was greatly influenced by French.

The Mercian dialects were spoken in central England but they were understood by neighboring (people from the North and South districts). Of great linguistic importance was the activity of John Wycliffe. He was the forerunner of the English reformation. His contribution(вклад) to English was his and his pupils translation of the Bible which was completed in 1384. Besides he wrote some pamphlets where he criticized the corruption of the church. His texts were often copied and read by many people all over the country. He wrote mostly using the London dialect and it played an important role in the spreading of this dialect of English. John Goer – another poet (author) was born not far from London, nearer to Kent. But there are not many Kentisms in his works. (These) His poems were written in Anglo-Norman and Latin.

Geoffrey Chaucer

Geoffrey Chaucer, a famous writer before the age of Shakespeare, played the most important role in development of London dialect. In the history of English he was described by many writers as faunder of literary English language. He was born about the year 1340. He was an ambassador, official employee, a member of parliament. He communicated with all sorts of people and in his works he gave a true and vivid(живую) picture of England. He wrote in a dialect which coincided in(совпадать) the main features with the London dialect. He didn't create the literary language as poet of outstanding talent. But he made better use of the literary language in his poems and he set up the pattern of the literary language. In the period of the 14^th to the 15^th century his poems were copied all over the country and his books were among the first to be printed hundred years after the composition. Author's literary language is based on the mixed East Midland dialect of London. It is known as a classical Middle English. In the 15^th-16^th centuries it became the basis of the national standard form of a written language.

The Great vowel shift

Magic change in the pronunciation of English language. It took place in the south of England between 1200-1600. GVS was first studied by Danish linguist, Otto Jesperson. He created this term. Main difference between pronunciation ME and Modern English.

GVS is the most important historical event. It marked the separation between ME and Modern English. These vowels had continental values.

During GVS 2 highest long became diphthongs. Other 5 vowels increase in tongue high.

Principal changes:

1. MidE [long a] fronted to open[ǽ] and then raised to [e]. In many dialects it diphthongoised into [ei] [make]

2. MidE [ ] raised into [e] and to [i:]

3. MidE [ei] raised into down [i] [fit]

4. MidE [i]? (miss) diphthongoised to ModE [ai] [mise]

5. MidE [o:] raised to [o] and ModE [ou] boat

6. MidE [o:] raised to [u]

7. [u:] raised into diphthong [ou] – ModE [au] mouse

But before labial consonants this shift did not occur and [u] remains as [u:] root

Labial (губные)consonants are divided into:

- bilabial consonants which are articulated by two lips [p, b, m, w];

- labio-dental consonants are articulated with the lower lip against the upper teeth [v, f].

This means that the vowel in some English words was pronounced similar to modern vowels.

But the effects of vowel shift were not entirely uniformed in all dialects. Differences in degree of vowel shifting can be detected in region dialects both on written and oral form [speech of Scotland]

Shortening of long vowels produced complications:

Shortening before [d ] and [t∫] dead –[did]

Some borrowings have a spelling form origin by ratianed – they are treated as exceptions of GVS

English spelling was becoming standardiezed in 15-17 centuries. GVS is responsible for many of peculiarities of English spelling.

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The most characteristic feature of English is usually said to be its mixed character. Many linguists consider foreign influence, especially that of French, to be the most important factor in the history of English. This wide-spread viewpoint is supported only by the evidence of the English word-stock, as its grammar and phonetic systems are very stable and not easily influenced by other languages.

To comprehend the nature of the English vocabulary and its historical development it is necessary to examine the etymology of different layers, the historical causes of their appearance, their volume and role and the comparative importance of native and borrowed elements in enriching the English vocabulary.

According to their origin words can be native and borrowed. A native word is a word which belongs to the original English stock as known from the earliest available manuscripts of the Old English period.

Native words are further subdivided into the words of the Indo-European stock and those of the Common Germanic origin. The words having cognates in the vocabularies of different Indo-European languages form the oldest layer. It has been noticed that they readily fall into definite semantic groups. Among them we find terms of kinship (mother, father, son, daughter), names of animals and birds (cat, wolf, goose), parts of human body (arm, eye). Some of the most frequent verbs belong to this word stock: come, sit, stand. Most numerals are also of the Indo-European origin.

A bigger part of the native vocabulary consists of the words of the Common Germanic word stock. Such nouns as summer, winter, rain, ice, hat; the verbs to bake, to buy, to make, to meet; the adjectives deaf, dead, deep are of the Common Germanic origin. Most adverbs and pronouns also belong here.

Together with the words of the Common Indo-European stock the Common Germanic words form the bulk of the most frequent elements used in any style of speech.