Geographical position of Russia
With a total area of seventeen million square kilometers and population of about one hundred and fifty million, Russia, officially called the Russian Federation, is considered to be the largest country in the world. The Russian Federation is divided into eighty five federal subjects, twenty two of which are republics (Kalmykia, Komi, Dagestan, Ingushetia and others). The republics represent areas of non-Russian ethnicity and entitled to set their own official languages and establish their own constitutions. The capital of the country is Moscow.
Russia occupies the eastern half of Europe and the northern part of Asia. It borders on many countries, which had earlier been Soviet Republics, as well as with China, Japan, Korea, Finland and other countries. Russia is washed by twelve seas (the Black Sea, the White Sea, the Barents Sea, the Baltic Sea and some others) and three oceans (the Pacific, the Atlantic and the Arctic).
Russia is rather rich in water resources. However, at present due to overpopulation, agricultural intensification, industrial development and the expansion of the new cities there is a shortage of fresh water in our country. So, there are lots of rivers in Russia. The longest rivers are the Volga in Europe and the Ob, the Yenisei and the Lena in Asia. The largest lakes are Ladoga and Baikal which is considered to be the deepest fresh-water lake in the world.
The plains occupy about sixty percent of the country's territory. There are two major plains in Russia: the Great Russian Plain and the West Siberian Lowland.
The most important mountain chains are the Caucasus, the Altai, the Urals, which are generally seen as the dividing line between Europe and Asia, and some others.
About eleven percent of Russia is tundra, a vast treeless region in which the subsoil is permanently frozen. The zone is known for its white nights in summer, and for days of total darkness in winter. However, less than one percent of Russia's population lives in this zone.
Taiga, the most extensive natural area of Russia, stretches from the western borders of Russia to the Pacific. It is famous for its fir-wood forests and rich vegetation. There are lots of bushes, such as currants, juniper, cowberries, as well as fir-trees, pines and other plants. The typical representatives of the fauna are sables, lynxes, squirrels, as well as deer and roes.
Since Russia is a huge country, its climate differs from one region to another: there is a cold arctic climate in the north Siberia and a sub-tropical hot climate near the Black Sea coast. So, winters in Russia vary from cool along Black Sea coast to frigid in Siberia. As for summers, they tend to be warm in the steppes and cool along the Arctic coast.
In fact, Russia is rich in natural and mineral resources of natural gas, manganese, coal, iron ore, copper, lead, gold and many others.
Vocabulary:
total area — общая площадь
population — народонаселение, жители
federal subject — субъект Федерации
ethnicity — этническая или расовая принадлежность
to be entitled to — иметь право
to establish — учреждать, устанавливать
to occupy — занимать, охватывать
border — граничить
to wash— омывать (о море, океане)
Barents Sea — Баренцево море
Baltic Sea — Балтийское море
(the) Pacific — Тихий океан
water resources — водные ресурсы
overpopulation — перенаселенность
expansion — увеличение, экспансия
shortage — нехватка, недостаток, дефицит
fresh-water lake — пресноводное озеро
Great Russian Plain — Восточно-Европейская равнина
West Siberian Lowland — Западно-Сибирская равнина
(the) Caucasus — Кавказ, Кавказские горы, Большой Кавказ (горная система на границе России, Грузии и Азербайджана, между Чёрным и Каспийским морями)
(the) Urals — Уральские горы, Уральский горный хребет (разделяющий Европу и Азию)
tundra — тундра
subsoil — подпочва
taiga — тайга
to stretch — простираться
fir-wood — хвойная древесина
vegetation — растительность
bush — кустарник
currant — смородина
juniper — можжевельник
cowberry — брусника
fauna — фауна, животный мир
sable — соболь
lynx — рысь
roe — косуля
manganese — марганец
coal — (каменный) уголь
iron ore — железная руда
copper — медь
lead — свинец
Russia's Seven Wonders
Art, architecture and culture join with virgin wilderness and sun-splashed beaches, making Russia truly an adventurous travellers wonderland.
From the volcanoes and geysers of Kamchatka, through the Siberian taiga to the mineral spas around the Black Sea coast, it cannot be said Russia has nothing to offer the average tourist.
But figures cited by tourism experts showed that 70-80 percent of 3.5 million foreign tourists that came to the country last year rarely ventured farther than Moscow, St. Petersburg and perhaps the Golden Ring.
They don t realize they could be taking a cruise along the waters of the Volga, bathing in hot springs surrounded by volcanoes in Kamchatka or taking a boat over the crystal-clear waters of Lake Baikal.
An alternative Seven Wonders of the World could easily be unearthed on Russia's territory, if only tourists were willing to dig them out.
Considered the heart of Russia, Moscow is described as a place where ancient Russia meets the Soviet Union and capitalism — illustrated by the golden onion domes of the Kremlin's Orthodox churches, which look out past Lenin's mausoleum and over the massive GUM shopping complex.
St. Petersburg, on the other hand, is considered to be a more European capital. The creation of Peter the Great, it is best know for its 18th- and 19th-century palaces; the Peter and Paul fortress, a former prison, the Hermitage Museum, and the White Nights.
The Golden Ring is a group of towns and cities — including Suzdal, Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Kostroma and others. They offer a host of restored and abandoned churches, monasteries and fortresses, rich museums and preserved wooden villages.
Set on the Black Sea coast against the backdrop of the snow-capped Caucasus mountains, the beach resort town Sochi was for a long time the place to spend a vacation, with its subtropical climate, warm seas, arboretum and gardens. Most tourists visit Sochi to relax on the beaches, swim in the sea and partake of its favourable climate; but its mineral spas and sanatoriums make it an ideal health resort.
For those seeking a natural high, Russias best attractions may be the Altai and Caucasus mountains.
Untouched, unharmed and largely undiscovered by Western tourists, the so-called golden mountains of Russia's Altai republic are noted for being among the most beautiful and primordial parts of Siberia. The Altai mountain chain is set in a rich and diverse landscape of steppe, taiga and semi-desert, and stretches about 2,000 kilometres from Mongolia's Gobi Desert to the West Siberian Plain, through Chinese, Mongolian, Russian and Kazak territory.
Areas of the Caucasus mountains, which rise dramatically above the Black Sea coast and run down to the Caspian Sea, are also noted for their plant diversity, subalpine pastures grazed by wild animals and lack of human disturbance. Here, one can go skiing, scale Europe's highest peak — the 5,642-meter Mount Elbrus — and relax at the spas of Mineralniye Vody.
Travellers can visit Kamchatka to see its hot springs and view its wildlife and spectacular sunsets. Kamchatka, a more than 1,000-kilometer-long peninsula dividing the Sea of Okhotsk from the Pacific Ocean, is said to be one of the least explored regions on Earth. The most amazing attraction is the Valley of the Geysers in Kronotsky National Park, which was only discovered in the 1940s. Its 180 or more volcanoes, thermal activity, hot springs, heated rivers and geysers should be enough to attract any tourist. Inhabited by less than one person per square kilometre, the peninsula boasts at least 14,000 rivers, 10,000 lakes, thousands of brown bears and sable, and hundreds of bird and plant species indigenous to the area.
A holiday pursuit popular among Russians but rarely tried by foreigners is to take the pulse of the country by plying its main artery, the Volga. The 3,700-kilometer-long river winds its way past republics and cities with varied environments, religions and economies, but all of which hold the Volga as something central to their cultural heritage.
But among the best waters to ply are the crystal-clear depths of the pearl of Siberia — Lake Baikal — one of the genuine Seven Natural Wonders of the World. An impressive spectacle near the border of Russia and Mongolia, Lake Baikal is 636 kilometres long and 80 kilometres wide — and is the world's deepest lake. Surrounded by forests and mountain peaks, the waters are transparent to a depth of 40 meters in the summer, and freeze over so thick in the winter that the Trans-Siberian Railroad once ran over its surface. The lake has more than 2,000 recorded plant and animal species — bears, elk, lynx, sables, freshwater seal, trout, salmon and sturgeon. It is fed by 336 rivers, with only one river feeding out.
One of the most famous ways to explore Siberia's vast expanse — and probably the dream of many a foreigner — is the mythical Trans-Siberian Railroad. The Trans-Siberian Railroad is now the longest continuous rail line on earth. Lake Baikal, Ulan Ude in Buryatia and Vladivostok, Far East, are all along the journey.
Great Britain
Great Britain, officially the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is situated on the British Isles, off Western Europe. It is separated from France by only 34 kilometres of water. The country's total area is over 244 thousand square kilometres. The country is often referred to as Great Britain, Britain or the UK. But to be precise, Great Britain comprises England, Wales and Scotland on the island of Great Britain, while the United Kingdom includes Great Britain as well as Northern Ireland on the island of Ireland. The capital of the United Kingdom is London, in England. The capitals of Scotland, Ireland and Wales are Edinburgh, Belfast and Cardiff respectively. Great Britain is the fourth most populous country in Europe, it has about 57 million inhabitants. The English are more than 80 % of the country's population. English is the official language of Great Britain. The Church of England, also called the Anglican Church, is the official church in England.
Although a small island, Great Britain has a remarkable variety of landscapes. To the north and west are highlands — the mountains of Scotland, Cambria and Wales, and the Pennine Chain. To the east are flat plains, and in the south are lowlands broken by low ranges of hills. To the southwest are the bleak moors of Devon and Cornwall. A warm ocean current, the Gulf Stream, washes Britain's western shores and accounts for the mildness of its climate.
Great Britain is one of the world's leading industrialized nations. It has achieved this position despite the lack of most raw materials needed for industry. The country also must import about 40 % of its food supplies. The largest industries include machine tools; electric power, automation, and railroad equipment; ships, motor vehicle, aircraft; electronic and communications equipment; metals; chemicals; petroleum; coal; food processing; paper, textiles, and clothing. By the late 1990s, banking, insurance, business services, and other service industries accounted for two thirds of the GDP and employed almost 70 % of the workforce. The main industrial and commercial areas are the great conurbations, where about one third of the country's population lives. The administrative and financial centre and most important port is Greater London.
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is a constitutional monarchy. It means that the United Kingdom is governed by hereditary sovereign, an elected House of Commons and a partly hereditary House of Lords. The constitution exists in no one document but is a centuries-old accumulation of statutes, judicial decisions, usage, and tradition.
The sovereign has the title of King (or Queen). The Sovereign has very few functions that really matter, such as the function of the arbiter of last resort in some matters. The hereditary monarch is almost entirely limited to exercising ceremonial functions. These matters can be dissolution of Parliament, and invitations to form a government where there is no clear majority. The Queen is Elizabeth II.
The supreme legislative power is vested in the Parliament, which seats for five years unless sooner dissolved. The Parliament has two chambers: the House of Lords with about 830 hereditary peers, 26 spiritual peers, about 270 life peers and peeresses, and the House of Commons.
The House of Commons has 650 popularly elected members. The House of Commons is the real government body of the United Kingdom. In order to become a law, a new bill proposed by the Cabinet, must be approved by the both Houses of the Parliament. The Lords cannot veto a bill, but they can delay it for a maximum of 1 year. Financial bills cannot be delayed by the House of Lords.
The executive power of the Crown is exercised by the Cabinet, headed by Prime Minister. Prime Minister, normally the head of the party commanding a majority in the House of Commons, is appointed by the Sovereign. Prime Minister appoints the rest of the Cabinet. All ministers must be members of one or the other House of the Parliament. They are individually and collectively responsible to the Crown and the Parliament. The Cabinet proposes bills and arranges business of the Parliament.
Government in Britain, since 1945 has alternated between only two political parties: the conservatives (the Tory) and the Labour Party. No other party has been in office at all since 1945 and there have been no coalitions. The third long-established party, the Liberals, enjoyed moments of success, but no member of the Liberal Party has held government office since 1945.
Vocabulary:
to exist — существовать; находиться в природе, жить
entity — сообщность; объект; организация
to enact — предписывать, определять, устанавливать; вводить закон; постановлять
permanent — постоянный, перманентный
to implement — выполнять, осуществлять; обеспечивать выполнение
adoption — принятие; усвоение
partition — деление, раадел, разделение
county — графство (административно-территориальная единица в Англии)
to remain — оставаться ч current — текущий, данный, современный; течение
maritime — морской
zenith — зенит
to stretch — иметь протяжение, простираться, тянуться
the Commonwealth — Содружество (свободное объединение независимых государств, не имеющее общего договора или конституции)
the European Monetary Union — Европейский монетный союз
issue — исход, результат (чего-л.); спорный вопрос, предмет спора, разногласие; проблема
border — граница
temperate — умеренный (о климате и т. п.)
to moderate — ослаблять, смягчать
to prevail — преобладать, господствовать, превалировать; доминировать
landscape — ландшафт, пейзаж
rugged — пересеченный, заваленный, труднопроходимый (о местности)
coal — уголь
petroleum — нефть
limestone — известняк
iron ore — железная руда
clay — глина, глинозем
chalk — мел
gypsum — гипс
lead — свинец
borough — район; городок, небольшой город
heir — наследник, преемник