Archaic Forms of the Auxiliaries
The forms given in the tables above are those of modern standard English. One may also come across archaic forms, mainly in poetry or texts where an archaic effect is intended.
| Forms | Grammatical characteristics | Verbs |
| dost [dʌSt], [dǝst] | Present indefinite, 2nd person singular | to do |
| doth, doeth [dʌθ], ][dǝθ] | Present indefinite, 3rd person singular | |
| didst [dɪdst] | Past indefinite, 2nd person singular | |
| art [a:t], [ǝt] | Present indefinite, 2nd person singular | to be |
| wast [wɔst], [wǝst], wert [wǝ:t], [wǝt] | Past indefinite, 2nd person singular | |
| hast [hæst], [hǝst], |ǝst], [st] | Present indefinite, 2nd person singular | to have |
| hath [hæθ], [hǝθ], [ǝθ] | Present indefinite, 3rd person singular | |
| hadst [hædst], [hǝdst], [ǝdst] | Past indefinite, 2nd person singular | |
| shall [∫ælt], [∫ǝlt], [∫lt] | Present indefinite, 2nd person singular | shall |
| shouldst, shouldest [∫udst] | Past indefinite, 2nd person singular | |
| wilt [wɪlt], [ǝlt], [ɪt] | Present indefinite, 2nd person singular | will |
| wouldst, wouldest [wudst] | Past indefinite, 2nd person singular |
| Table of tense - aspect - perfect forms of the verb “to translate” in the Indicative mood (3d person singular) | |||
| Time Reference | Aspect | Non-perfect | Perfect |
| Present | Common | He works | He has worked |
| Continuous | He is working | He has been working | |
| Past | Common | He worked | He had worked |
| Continuous | He was working | He had been working | |
| Future | Common | He will work | He will have worked |
| Continuous | He will be working | He will have been working | |
| Future in the past | Common | He would work | He would have worked |
| Continuous | He would be working | He would have been working |
Содержание
Morphology
PARTS OF SPEECH..................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
THE VERB..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 4
Formation of verb categories................................................................................................................................................................ 5
Morphological composition.................................................................................................................................................................. 5
Basic verb forms....................................................................................................................................................................................... 5
Regular and irregular verbs.................................................................................................................................................................. 5
The category of tense............................................................................................................................................................................ 14
The category of aspect.......................................................................................................................................................................... 14
The category of perfect......................................................................................................................................................................... 16
Present tenses......................................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Past tenses............................................................................................................................................................................................... 29
Future tenses........................................................................................................................................................................................... 38
Future in the past tenses....................................................................................................................................................................... 42
The sequence of tenses.......................................................................................................................................................................... 43
The category of voice............................................................................................................................................................................ 46
The category of mood............................................................................................................................................................................ 54
NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB (VERBALS)............................................................................................................................ 70
The Infinitive........................................................................................................................................................................................... 70
Predicative constructions with the infinitive................................................................................................................................... 85
The for-to-infinitive construction....................................................................................................................................................... 85
The objective with the infinitive construction................................................................................................................................. 86
The gerund.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 88
The gerund and the infinitive compared........................................................................................................................................... 95
The gerund and the verbal noun compared...................................................................................................................................... 97
The participle......................................................................................................................................................................................... 98
MODAL VERBS....................................................................................................................................................................................... 114
Can......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 114
May......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 117
Must........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 120
To have to, have got to....................................................................................................................................................................... 122
To be to.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 123
Need....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 125
Ought to................................................................................................................................................................................................. 126
Should.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 127
Shall....................................................................................................................................................................................................... 128
Will......................................................................................................................................................................................................... 129
Dare........................................................................................................................................................................................................ 131
THE NOUN................................................................................................................................................................................................ 132
Semantic characteristics.................................................................................................................................................................... 132
Morphological composition.............................................................................................................................................................. 133
Morphological characteristics......................................................................................................................................................... 134
The category of number...................................................................................................................................................................... 135
The category of case........................................................................................................................................................................... 144
THE ARTICLE......................................................................................................................................................................................... 147
The use of the indefinite article........................................................................................................................................................ 149
The use of the definite article............................................................................................................................................................ 151
Absence of the article......................................................................................................................................................................... 155
THE ADJECTIVE..................................................................................................................................................................................... 162
Semantic characteristics.................................................................................................................................................................... 162
Morphological composition.............................................................................................................................................................. 163
Morphological characteristics......................................................................................................................................................... 164
Adjectives of participial origin........................................................................................................................................................ 166
Adjectives and adverbs....................................................................................................................................................................... 166
Patterns of combinability.................................................................................................................................................................. 166
Syntactic functions.............................................................................................................................................................................. 168
Substantivized adjectives................................................................................................................................................................... 168
THE PRONOUN........................................................................................................................................................................................ 169
Morphological composition and categorical characteristics.................................................................................................... 170
Subclasses of pronouns and their functions.................................................................................................................................. 170
THE NUMERAL....................................................................................................................................................................................... 182
Morphological composition.............................................................................................................................................................. 183
Morphological characteristics......................................................................................................................................................... 184
Patterns of combinability.................................................................................................................................................................. 184
Syntactic function............................................................................................................................................................................... 186
Substantivized numerals.................................................................................................................................................................... 187
THE STATIVE.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 187
Morphological characteristics......................................................................................................................................................... 188
Syntactic function............................................................................................................................................................................... 188
THE ADVERB.......................................................................................................................................................................................... 189
Morphological composition.............................................................................................................................................................. 190
Morphological characteristics......................................................................................................................................................... 190
Semantic characteristics.................................................................................................................................................................... 192
Syntactic functions and patterns of combinability....................................................................................................................... 192
Positional characteristics.................................................................................................................................................................. 194
MODAL WORDS...................................................................................................................................................................................... 194
THE PREPOSITION................................................................................................................................................................................ 195
Morphological composition.............................................................................................................................................................. 196
Semantic characteristics.................................................................................................................................................................... 196
Combinability of prepositions.......................................................................................................................................................... 198
Positional characteristics.................................................................................................................................................................. 198
THE CONJUNCTION.............................................................................................................................................................................. 199
Morphological composition.............................................................................................................................................................. 200
Semantic characteristics.................................................................................................................................................................... 200
Combinability of conjunctions and their functions..................................................................................................................... 201
THE CONJUNCTS................................................................................................................................................................................... 203
THE PARTICLE....................................................................................................................................................................................... 205
THE INTERJECTION............................................................................................................................................................................. 206
Syntax
THE SENTENCE...................................................................................................................................................................................... 207
Structural classification of sentences............................................................................................................................................. 208
THE SIMPLE SENTENCE..................................................................................................................................................................... 209
Two-member sentences....................................................................................................................................................................... 209
One-member sentences........................................................................................................................................................................ 209
Elliptical (incomplete) sentences..................................................................................................................................................... 210
COMMUNICATIVE TYPES OF SENTENCES.................................................................................................................................. 211
Declarative sentences......................................................................................................................................................................... 211
Interrogative sentences...................................................................................................................................................................... 212
Imperative sentences........................................................................................................................................................................... 216
Exclamatory sentences....................................................................................................................................................................... 218
NON-SENTENCE UTTERANCES........................................................................................................................................................ 219
NEGATION................................................................................................................................................................................................ 220
PARTS OF THE SENTENCE................................................................................................................................................................. 224
Ways of expressing parts of the sentence........................................................................................................................................ 224
Levels of syntactical analysis............................................................................................................................................................ 227
The subject............................................................................................................................................................................................ 228
The predicate........................................................................................................................................................................................ 233
Structural classification of the predicate....................................................................................................................................... 233
The simple predicate........................................................................................................................................................................... 233
The compound predicate.................................................................................................................................................................... 235
Agreement of the predicate with the subject.................................................................................................................................. 243
The object.............................................................................................................................................................................................. 249
Ways of expressing the object........................................................................................................................................................... 249
Types of object..................................................................................................................................................................................... 250
Objects to adjectives........................................................................................................................................................................... 256
Objects to statives................................................................................................................................................................................ 257
Objects to adverbs............................................................................................................................................................................... 257
The attribute......................................................................................................................................................................................... 257
Ways of expressing attributes........................................................................................................................................................... 257
The position of attributes................................................................................................................................................................... 261
Types of connection between an attribute and its headword..................................................................................................... 262
The apposition..................................................................................................................................................................................... 263
Types of connection between an apposition and its headword................................................................................................. 264
The adverbial modifier....................................................................................................................................................................... 265
Obligatory and non-obligatory adverbial modifiers................................................................................................................... 265
Detached adverbial modifiers........................................................................................................................................................... 266
Ways of expressing adverbial modifiers......................................................................................................................................... 267
Structural classification of the adverbial modifier...................................................................................................................... 268
Semantic characteristics of the adverbial modifier...................................................................................................................... 269
Semantic classes of adverbial modifiers......................................................................................................................................... 269
Independent elements of the sentence............................................................................................................................................. 274
WORD ORDER......................................................................................................................................................................................... 276
The grammatical function of word order........................................................................................................................................ 276
The emphatic and communicative functions of word order........................................................................................................ 280
The linking function of word order.................................................................................................................................................. 282
THE PREDICATIVE COMPLEXES..................................................................................................................................................... 282
The subjective predicative constructions ...................................................................................................................................... 284
The objective predicative constructions......................................................................................................................................... 286
The absolute nominative constructions.......................................................................................................................................... 291
The for-to-infinitive constructions................................................................................................................................................... 294
The gerundial predicative constructions........................................................................................................................................ 295
THE COMPOSITE SENTENCE............................................................................................................................................................ 296
THE COMPOUND SENTENCE............................................................................................................................................................. 297
THE COMPLEX SENTENCE................................................................................................................................................................ 301
Formal indicators of subordination (connectors)........................................................................................................................ 301
Functional classification of subordinate clauses......................................................................................................................... 304
The complex sentence with nominal clauses.................................................................................................................................. 304
The complex sentence with an attributive clause.......................................................................................................................... 309
The complex sentence with an adverbial clause........................................................................................................................... 312
The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of place............................................................................................................ 313
The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of time.............................................................................................................. 313
The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of manner........................................................................................................ 315
The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of comparison................................................................................................ 315
The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of condition.................................................................................................... 316
The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of concession.................................................................................................. 319
The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of purpose....................................................................................................... 321
The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of cause........................................................................................................... 321
The complex sentence with an adverbial clause of result (consequence)................................................................................ 322
The complex sentence with mutually subordinated clauses........................................................................................................ 323
Pseudo-complex sentences................................................................................................................................................................. 324
Appended clauses (повторы с уточнением)................................................................................................................................. 325
Absolute (or indendent) subordinate clauses................................................................................................................................ 325
Parenthetical clauses (parentheses)................................................................................................................................................ 326
INDIRECT SPEECH................................................................................................................................................................................ 326
APPENDIX I. SOME WAYS OF SENTENCE EXTENSION............................................................................................................ 329
APPENDIX II. SOME SPECIAL DIFFICULTIES OF ANALYSIS................................................................................................. 333
APPENDIX III. SUGGESTED WAYS OF SENTENCE ANALYSIS............................................................................................... 335