In the Field of Learning and Religion

Late in the third century A.D. the Roman Empire had divided into eastern and western regions. By A.D. 476, when the Western Roman Empire fell to Germanic invaders, the center of power in the Empire had shifted from Rome to the eastern Mediterranean. Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, became the center of the new Byzantine Empire.

Byzantine culture. In A.D. 330 the emperor Constantine ordered the building of a new capital city called Constantinople. It was located on the ruins of the ancient Greek city of Byzantium, a fortress city perfectly located on a peninsula that was protected from attack on all sides. The new civilization that grew up in Constantinople, called Byzantine civilization, blended aspects of many cultures. Its legal system was Roman, its language and customs were Greek, and its religion was that of early Christian communities in the eastern Mediterranean. Byzantine art, which was characterized by brilliant colors and intricate designs, was influenced by the classical Greco-Roman style, Christian sources, and the arts of the ancient Middle East.

Byzantine emperors claimed to be the successors of the roman emperors. They were absolute rulers whose authority was believed to come from God. Their word was law, not only in civil affairs, but also in the Church. By reserving the right to appoint the patriarch (head) of the Church in Constantinople, they exerted great influence over Church policies. Because no law of succession was ever established, struggles for power were frequent, and many emperors died violently.

The most famous of the Byzantine emperors was Justinian, who ruled from A.D. 527 to 565. Justinian ordered scholars to collect and organize the laws of Rome, which were in danger of being lost under Germanic rule. Justinian’s Code, as this set of laws came to be known, preserved Roman law for future ages. Justinian also sent Byzantine forces to regain Roman lands in the western Mediterranean that had been conquered by Germanic tribes. His superb armies retook vast territories in Europe and North Africa.

The legacy of Byzantium. Christianity developed differently in the Byzantine Empire from that in Western Europe. Byzantine churches used the Greek language, while the Western churches used Latin. Moreover, there were many disagreements between Byzantine churches and Western churches over beliefs and practices. In the eleventh century a dispute over the refusal of the Byzantine emperor to recognize the authority of the Pope in Rome led to a permanent break. Christendom was divided into the Roman Catholic Church, which remained under the authority of the Pope, and the Eastern Orthodox Church, which was under the authority of the Byzantine emperor and the patriarch of Constantinople.

Despite continuing invasions, the Byzantine Empire remained relatively stable for centuries. At a time when learning was declining in Europe, the Byzantines continued to teach and study Greek and Roman philisophy, literature, science, and mathematics. Although Byzantine scholars made few original contributions, their preservation of the ancient texts prevented classical learning from being lost to the world. Byzantine scholarship stimulated learning in the Muslim world, and eventually contributed to a revival of learning in the West. The eastern stronghold of Christianity, Byzantium protected the West from invading Muslim armies for centuries. During this time, Eastern Orthodox missionaries worked to spread Christianity to Slavic peoples in eastern and southern Europe.

The fall of the Byzantine Empire.Warfare with Muslim armies gradually weakened the Byzantines after the eleventh century. The death blow to the Empire came from the Ottoman Turks. In 1453 Constantinople fell to the Turkish army, marking the end of the Byzantine Empire.

Ex. 1. Answer the questions.

1. What crucial changes brought about the new Byzantine Empire?

2. How did the Byzantine culture blend aspects of other cultures?

3. What power did Byzantine emperors possess?

4. Who was one of the most famous Byzantine emperors and what was his contribution to the strengthening of the empire?

5. How did Christianity in the Byzantine Empire develop differently from that in Western Europe?

6. What were the Byzantine’s greatest contributions to European history?

Ex. 2. Speak on: the Byzantine culture, Byzantine legacy and its contribution to European history, the development of Christianity in the Byzantine Empire.

Text 3. Medieval Europe

A. Read the first part of the text and do the tasks that follow.

The Middle Ages are sometimes called the Christian centuries, because during this period of European history, religion was the focus of life and the Church was the leading institution that gave Europeans a feeling of unity.

Medieval culture. The new culture that gradually developed in Europe was a blending of Germanic, Christian, and Greco-Roman elements. In the ninth century the Frankish ruler Charlemagne united much of Europe under his rule. Charlemagne’s empire spread and strengthened the new medieval culture.

Charlemagne’s heirs could not hold the empire together. Raids by Vikings, Magyars, and Muslims caused widespread disorder. Trade and agriculture were interrupted and whole villages were destroyed by pillage and plunder. When central governments were unable to provide securtiy, people looked to local lords for protection.

Feudalism and manorialism. The system of government and landholding that developed out of this disorder was known as feudalism. In exchange for military aid, great lords granted land to lesser lords. The noble who received the land was called a vassal. The wealth of feudal lords came from the labor of peasants. or serfs, who farmed the lords’ lands. Serfs agreed to work on the land of the lord’s estate, or manor, in exchange for his protection. In return for housing and land to work, serfs owed many services to their lords. Although the conditions of life were harsh, few serfs questioned the feudal system. They accepted their lot because they, like all other Christians in medieval times, believed that God had determined a person’s place in society.

The manor was the basic economic unit during the Middle Ages. Because opportunities for trade were very limited, manors were self-sufficient. The serfs produced not only the food but also most of the clothing, furniture, tools, and weapons they needed.