Is guarding threat combine notably function face-to-face purposes tribes

1. This organization should … efficiently.

2. Native American … shared a common religion, culture and customs.

3. The company … its independence.

4. The government decided to … all its forces.

5. Yesterday we had a … meeting.

6. The … of this dictionary is to help students.

7. The dispute poses a direct … to peace.

8. Emigration has … increased over the past five years.

Text 7

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Levels of government

The modern nation is a mix of governments of various sizes, ranging from local (towns, villages, and cities) to regional (states or provinces) to national. The larger, national government must work with its smaller units. In general, there have

been two main ways that modern national governments interact with local governments to form political systems: the unitary state and the federal state.

In a unitary political system, the national government can grant some authority to smaller, local governments, but the majority of the power rests with the central government. There are many different types of unitary systems in the world today. In some, like the United Kingdom, local regions are represented in the national government by people who are elected to the national Parliament. In others, the local regions have little say in the government. Local officials may even be appointed by the nation's leader.

In federal systems, power is more balanced between national and local governments than it is in a unitary system. The national government exercises power over the entire country, and local governments control smaller units, such as states or provinces. Federal governments exist in many of the largest countries of the world, including Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, India, Russia, and the United States.

Structure of governments

Although many countries have similar institutions, the definition of those bodies and the way they work together can vary greatly. The main bodies are an executive, or head of state; a legislature; and a judiciary, or court system. Often these are defined by a constitution. In democracies the roles of these institutions are clearly defined and separated to some extent. In some countries these are all controlled by one person or a small group of people. Such countries can be monarchies or dictatorships.

2. Ответьте на вопросы к тексту:

1. What is the modern nation?

2. What are the two main ways that modern national governments interact with local governments to form political systems?

3. What is a unitary political system?

4. What different types of unitary systems are in the world today?

5. What is a federal system?

6. Where do federal governments exist?

7. What are the main bodies of government?

8.What is defined by the constitution?

3. Скажите, соответствуют ли данные утверждения прочитанному тексту:

1. The larger, national government must work with its larger units.

2. There are few types of unitary systems in the world today.

3. Local officials may even be appointed by the nation's leader.

4. In federal systems, power is less balanced between national and local governments than it is in a unitary system.

5. The national government exercises power over the entire country.

6. Federal governments exist in Russia and the United States.

7. The definition of institutions and the way they work together doesn’t vary greatly.

8.In democracies the roles of the institutions aren’t separated.

4. Найдите синонимы:

1. size

2. local

3. unit

4. to interact

5. majority

6. entire

7. province

8. to vary

A part

B to differ

C the most part of something

D whole

E how large or small something is

F to communicate, to react

G regional

H part of the country

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Democracy

There are two leading types of constitutional democracy in the world today. These are the presidential system, such as that of the United States, and the parliamentary system, such as that of the United Kingdom.

In both systems political parties are key institutions. It is through them that the citizens are able to express their opinion by voting for candidates for office. The parties are groups of people with similar views about major issues. Most candidates for political office are members of a particular party, though membership in a party means different things in different countries.

In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, the parties are fairly rigid, meaning that its members are expected to always vote with the party. In the United States, however, party members are free to vote as they see fit on any particular issue. The number of parties can also vary in each country. In some, notably the United States and the United Kingdom, there are only two main parties. In others there may be many parties. Because power is divided among more groups, it is less likely that one group will have a clear majority to rule. In such cases several parties must work together to share power.

Presidential system

In a presidential system the executive, legislative, and judicial branches are clearly separated. The president is elected by the people and is not a member of the legislature. In such systems the president is both the political head of the government and also the head of state, who presides over ceremonies and official functions. The president chooses people to serve as his or her cabinet. These are the heads of the various departments. They are not elected.

The legislature usually consists of two bodies. In the U.S. Congress, members of both the Senate and the House of Representatives are elected officials. Like the president, they are elected for set terms.

Established court systems are found in all advanced political systems. There are often several levels of courts. In the United States judges of local courts are elected by the people of a particular district. The highest court is the Supreme Court. Supreme Court justices are appointed by the president and approved by the Senate.

Parliamentary system

In a parliamentary system the prime minister is the national political leader, and another figure serves as the head of state. In the United Kingdom the head of state is the queen. In Japan it is the emperor. In some countries the head of state may be an elected president, but the prime minister usually has the true power. The prime minister is generally a member of the legislature who is either elected by the legislature or chosen automatically as the leader of the party with the most members in the legislature. The prime minister's cabinet, and the leaders of the government departments, are also members of the legislature.

The legislature is known generally as a parliament, though each country may have its own name for it. In Israel the name is the Knesset, for instance, while in Japan it is the Diet. The legislature may consist of one or two houses. The members are chosen in a variety of ways. Sometimes one house is elected by the people while the members of the other house are appointed by the ruler or by regional assemblies. In other cases all members of both houses are elected.

The judiciary is also controlled by the legislature to varying degrees. In the United Kingdom all judges are appointed by the lord chancellor, who is the speaker of the House of Lords. The country's highest court is made up of judges who are members of the House of Lords.

2. Скажите, соответствуют ли данные утверждения прочитанному тексту:

1. There are four leading types of constitutional democracy in the world

today.

2. In both systems political parties are key institutions.

3. The number of parties is the same in all countries.

4. In a presidential system the president is both the political head of the government and also the head of state.

5. There is often one level of courts.

6. In a parliamentary system the prime minister is the head of state.

7. Each country may have its own name for a parliament.

8.The members of a parliament are chosen in the same way.

3. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты:

1. членство

2. голосовать

3. однако

4. разделять

5. выбирать

6. назначать

7. разнообразие, множество

8.судья

4. Замените подчеркнутые слова синонимами из текста:

1. He is the main person in this society.

2. Many people like to try lots of different kinds of food.

3. Nowadays lots of people get divorced.

4. She always has the same point of view.

5. Our boss drinks only certain types of tea.

6. The climate of the country differs from one region to another.

7. The divorce rate goes up every year, for example in Russia.

8. The work is to control the quality of food.

Text 9

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Parliament

The legislature, or lawmaking body, of the United Kingdom and many other nations is called a parliament. The word parliament is related to the French verb parler, whichmeans “to speak.” Parliaments are places where electedrepresentatives of the people meet to speak, to debate, and to make laws. Many modern parliaments are modeled on that of the United Kingdom, which is one of the oldest parliaments still in existence.

Most parliaments are bicameral, which means that they consist of two separate houses of legislators. Great Britain's Parliament is made up of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The upper house, or House of Lords, is the older of the two parts. It originally consisted of the nobility and clergy who were the closest advisers to the monarch. Until 1999 the House of Lords consisted mostly of members who inherited their positions. Since then it has been made up mainly of people chosen by the monarch in recognition of their outstanding achievements. Other members include important clergy of the Church of England as well as the country's senior judges. The judges are known as Law Lords. They constitute the highest court in the United Kingdom. The presiding officer is the lord chancellor, or the speaker of the House of Lords, who may take part in debates and votes. In addition to serving in Parliament, the lord chancellor is also a member of the cabinet and the chief administrator of the courts. The House of Lords was at one time the more powerful of the two houses. Over the centuries it lost much of its power to the House of Commons.

The House of Commons is the real authority. The members of the House of Commons are elected by the people. The country's chief executive is the prime minister, who is a member of Parliament and who is the leader of the majority party. The prime minister chooses members from both houses to serve as the ministers, or heads of the various departments of the government. These members are known as the cabinet. The House of Commons can impose taxes and vote money to, or withhold it from, the various public departments and services. The

primary function of the House of Commons is to make laws and to debate the major issues of the day.

In the House of Commons the members sit on benches in rows facing each other. The government ministers and their supporters sit on one side of the room, and the opposition sits on the other. One member is chosen by the others to serve as the speaker. The speaker makes sure that there is fair play between the two sides and orderly debate. On being chosen speaker he or she is expected to cut off all party ties in order to be impartial.

Each party has a whip, who makes sure that members attend the sessions during votes. There is also an officially recognized leader of the opposition, a member of the largest minority party.

Members of both houses also serve to keep a check on the prime minister and other government leaders. A certain portion of most sessions is devoted to a period in which members can ask questions of specific government ministers.

2. Ответьте на вопросы к тексту:

1. What are parliaments? What are they modeled on?

2. Describe the upper house of British Parliament – the House of Lords.

3. Who are member of the House of Lords?

4. Who is a prime minister?

5. What are the functions of the House of Commons?

6. What is the role of the speaker in the House of Commons?

7. What does a whip do?

8. Do members of both houses serve to keep a check on the prime minister?

3. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты:

1. представитель

2. двухпалатный